Teaching Secondary Students to Write Effectively

External validity of supporting evidence. 

Six studies compared the recommended prac-

tices to regular instructional practices.

126

 In 

five studies, the comparison group received 

an alternate version of the treatment (e.g., 

prewriting conferences without a focus on 

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70

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Appendix D 

(continued)

Appendix D 

(continued)

writing strategies, or instruction in writing 

skills such as vocabulary, spelling, grammar, 

and organization of ideas).

127

The interventions typically occurred during 

the school day and lasted at least one month. 

Three studies examined shorter-duration stud-

ies, two implemented in a single session

128

, and 

one implemented over six sessions.

129

 Seven 

studies examined interventions implemented 

in the classroom by teachers.

130

 Three exam-

ined interventions delivered in supplemental 

sessions by researchers,

131

 and one study did 

not provide information about implementa-

tion.

132

 Overall, the comparison group activities 

and the setting for the studies provided strong 

external and ecological validity.

The studies included diverse participants—

general-education students, English learners, 

and students with learning and writing dif-

ficulties. All studies included participants in 

grades 6–12, either in middle or high school 

settings. The studies were conducted either 

in the United States (including the Northeast, 

Mid-Atlantic, Southeast, and West Coast 

regions) or in other countries that the panel 

determined to be similar in terms of educa-

tional context and language orthography 

(Portugal and Germany).