Teaching English as a Foreign Language, Second Edition

participation, or of communicative function, realises very
quickly that it is a singularly profitless exercise.
It may be well, therefore, to begin by looking carefully at
just what ‘reading’ entails in the context of teaching English
as a foreign language—see Appendix 1 for a summary.
First it must be recognised that reading is a complex skill,
that is to say that it involves a whole series of lesser skills.
First of these is the ability to recognise stylised shapes which
are figures on a ground, curves and lines and dots in
patterned relationships. Moreover it is not only a matter of
recognising the shapes as such but recognising them as same
or different, and recognising that shapes which are quite
different may for the purposes of reading be regarded as the
same, as is the case with upper and lower case letters like ‘A’
and ‘a’. Good modern infant teaching recognises the need for
training in this kind of recognition and a good deal of time is
devoted to the matching of shapes and patterns and in
general cultivating the perceptual apparatus necessary for it.

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This is, however, in the nature of a low level skill, which
becomes increasingly mechanical; where learners are already
literate in a language which uses the Roman alphabet,
acquiring this skill presents few problems. It is only where
learners are illiterate or literate in a language which uses a
non-Roman script that difficulties may be encountered.
The second of the skills involved in the complex is the
ability to correlate the black marks on the paper—the
patterned shapes—with language. It is impossible to learn to
read without at least the capacity to acquire language. The
correlation appears to be made between elements of the
patterns on the paper and formal elements of language.
According to the nature of these formal linguistic elements
the nature of the skill involved alters. The elements may be
complex groups of sounds which might be called ‘words’ or
‘phrases’ or ‘sentences’ or even ‘paragraphs’, ‘chapters’, or
‘books’; or they might be the most basic elements, the single
‘sounds’ called phonemes. Readers who learn to correlate
larger groups of sounds with the patterns on the paper might
perhaps be learning by ‘look and say’, those learning to
correlate the patterns on the paper with phonemes by a
‘phonic’ method; both kinds of skill are needed to develop
efficient reading. Reading speed, for example, probably
depends to a considerable extent on the development of the
first; reading aloud would seem to depend at least to some
extent on the second.
A third skill which is involved in the total skill of reading is
essentially an intellectual skill; this is the ability to correlate
the black marks on the paper by way of the formal elements
of language, let us say the words as sound, with the meanings
which those words symbolise.
We have therefore three components in the reading skill; A,
the recognition of the black marks; B, the correlation of these
with formal linguistic elements; and C, the further correlation
of the result with meaning. The essence of reading then, is just
this—the understanding of the black marks on paper A-C. A
great many complexities have been grossly simplified in this
account, in particular it is important to understand that the
process is not a straight linear sequence as might be inferred
by the symbolisation that has been used. The scope of the
recognitions may be large scale or small, and the correlations

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involve a to-and-fro scanning between the text both as a
physical object and as a linguistic object and the meanings
which it conveys. The reader clearly brings his knowledge of
the language and his knowledge of the world to bear, he
builds up expectations, he makes predictions about what is to
come and the extent to which his predictions are accurate is
one of the factors in fluent reading. Thus most English native
speakers faced with a sentence that began, ‘The mathematician
soon solved the…’ would, using their knowledge of the
world, of how mathematicians behave and what their work
is, and their knowledge of the language, be likely to predict
that the sentence might continue with a word like ‘problem’
or ‘equation’ and accurate reading would be a matter of
confirming the prediction.
The word reading of course has a number of common
interpretations. It may mean reading aloud, a very complex
skill, which involves understanding the black marks first and
then the production of the right noises. Most people, if they
are asked to read something aloud, like to have an
opportunity to ‘glance over’ what it is they are being asked to
read. In the actual process of reading aloud too they usually
find that their eyes are several words if not lines ahead of
their tongues. The process is something like A-C-B.
If reading involves only the first two of the components
discussed above, A-B, the result is ‘barking at print’. It is
perfectly easy to learn to read an exotic language in this
sense. One can learn to make the right noises to correspond
with the squiggles on the page without having the slightest
understanding of what the sense of it is.
It must be recognised that reading aloud is primarily an oral
matter. For those who teach foreign languages it is closer to
‘pronunciation’ than it is to ‘comprehension’. While it is
perfectly proper to try to develop the skill of reading aloud it
clearly cannot be done using an unfamiliar text the content
and language of which stretches the linguistic capabilities of
the learners to the utmost. It requires a familiar text whose
content and language are clearly understood, detailed
explication and practice of the special pronunciation problems
in it, and small group techniques. It must also be admitted that
the usefulness of the skill of reading aloud is limited. Few
people are required to read aloud as a matter of daily routine,

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radio newscasters, clergymen, perhaps actors and that is all.
To the huge majority its importance is minimal.
Reading may also mean ‘silent reading’ and this is the
interpretation which is most likely for the term. This is
perhaps the nearest approach to the essence of reading, the
A-C of it. It is obvious that by far the greatest amount of
reading that is done in the world is silent. A reading room is a
silent room. But the nature of the silent reading skill is far
from uniform. It varies according to the use to which it is
being put. Some of the uses are (i) to survey material which is
to be studied, to look through indexes, chapter headings and
outlines, (ii) to skim—particularly when one item of
information is being sought in a mass of other printed
information, (iii) to gain superficial comprehension, as when
reading for pleasure or preparing to read aloud, (iv) to study
the content of what is read in some detail, (v) to study the
language in which the material is written—this may involve
textual study in the literary sense or it may involve the kind
of language study that a foreigner may need to do. The depth
and detail of understanding, of comprehension, increases as
we go through these ways of using reading, in sequence. The
skilled reader has developed all of these ways of using
reading. It is common for the third, fourth and sometimes the
fifth of these to be encouraged in schools, though the first
and second are almost completely neglected.
Of these five kinds of reading activity the first three,
survey reading, skimming, and superficial reading are
sometimes grouped together and called extensive reading.
The object of such reading is to cover the greatest possible
amount of text in the shortest possible time. A relatively low
degree of understanding is perfectly adequate for this, either
because that is all that is being sought in any case, or because
the material itself is highly redundant—as is the case for
example with newspaper reports. The label indicates that
those who use it are not concerned with the actual skills
involved but with the effects which the employment of those
skills produce, that is to say a familiarity, albeit not a very
thorough familiarity, with a large body of reading material. It
is by pursuing the activity of extensive reading that the
volume of practice necessary to achieve rapid and efficient
reading can be achieved. It is also one of the means by which

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a foreigner may be exposed to a substantial sample of the
language he may wish to learn without actually going to live
in the country to which that language is native.
The remaining two kinds of reading activity, content study
reading and linguistic study reading are also often grouped
together and called intensive reading. Once again the term
indicates that it is not the nature of the skills involved that is
of most interest but the results, in this case a deep and
thorough understanding of the black marks on the paper.
The concern is for detailed comprehension of very short
texts. Intensive reading is typically concerned with texts of
not more than 500 words in length. The objective is to
achieve full understanding of the logical argument, the
rhetorical arrangement or pattern of the text, of its symbolic,
emotional and social overtones, of the attitudes and purposes
of the author, and of the linguistic means that he employs to
achieve his ends.
Closely related to degree of understanding is reading
speed. Obviously the rate at which material may be covered
becomes slower as depth and detail of understanding
increase, but there are a number of other factors which enter
in here. One of these may be the clarity of the text itself.
Another factor is the extent to which the content of a text is
already familiar to the reader. Nevertheless it is possible to
develop reading speed, and efficient reading involves high
reading speeds with high levels of comprehension.
Many people seem to believe that study and slow reading
are the same, or at least that in order to study well one must
read slowly. It is very important that this belief be
undermined. Study involves several other sorts of skill
besides reading, and may well involve several different sorts
of reading skill. The good student will probably want to
make a preliminary survey of what he is going to study, this
will lead him to formulate a series of questions about the
subject he is studying, he will then read, perhaps partly
skimming, partly reading intensively to find the answer to
those questions, and when he has recorded the answers he
will at some future time revise the material. This sequence of
operations describes the well-known SQ3R study technique,
and it is clear that there is much more to it than just slow
reading. (A fuller description of this technique and much

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