Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
separately), as well as graduation exams for specialized schools, have
always been important sources of new problems, replenishing the
stock of existing problems (currently, both college entrance exams
and graduation exams have given way to the Uniform State Exam).
Formally, these problems can be solved by any graduate of any ordinary
school — in the sense that no special knowledge is required to solve
them. Often, these problems can and even should be criticized for their
artificiality and cumbersomeness (e.g. Bashmakov, 2010b). At the same
time, not infrequently they contain substantive and beautiful ideas.
Admittedly, we are simplifying the situation somewhat when we
speak about three sources of topics for schools with an advanced course
in mathematics — traditional school topics, college mathematics, and
topics “between the two” that are not typical of either schools or
colleges. It is not always possible to make such precise distinctions,
and in particular certain techniques for solving traditional school
problems have effectively evolved into special topics themselves, which
are studied in specialized schools and not in ordinary schools (this
automatically places graduates of ordinary schools at a disadvantage on
exams, notwithstanding any rhetoric that one or another problem may
formally be solved by anyone).
Problems involving parameters have become an example of such
a special topic or, more precisely, a running theme of the course in
mathematics for specialized schools. Consider the following example
of such a problem:
For what values of the parameter
a is there no value of x that
simultaneously satisfies the inequalities
x
2
− ax < 0 and ax > 1?
(Galitsky et al., 1997, p. 100)
The solution of the problem indeed does not require any special
knowledge. It is sufficient to examine three cases. For
a > 0, the
solution to the first inequality is the interval
(0, a), while the solution
to the second inequality is the interval
1
a
, +∞
. They do not intersect
if
1
a
≥ a, which, given that a > 0, implies that 0 < a ≤ 1. Reasoning
in an absolutely analogous fashion for
a < 0, we obtain −1 ≤ a < 0.
It remains to be seen that
a = 0 obviously works, since in this case
each of the inequalities simply has no solutions. The final answer is
−1 ≤ a ≤ 1.
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Despite its technical simplicity, this problem is not so easy: it requires
a certain use of logic and an ability to break down a problem into
different cases and to examine them carefully. Naturally, experience in
solving such problems helps students on exams and at the same time is
beneficial to student development (again, if the concentration on this
topic does not become excessive).
However, one can also give examples of many difficult and substan-
tive problems that do not belong to a separate section. Such problems
may be found in virtually any part of the school curriculum. Numerous
problems also admit different solutions and solutions based on different
parts of the course. Consider the following example:
Determine the maximum of the expression 3
x + 4 y, if x
2
+ y
2
= 25.
(For example, Zvavich et al., 1994, p. 78)
Of course, this problem can be solved using differential calculus:
it is sufficient to note that the maximum of the given expression is
evidently attained when the values of
x and y are nonnegative; then one
can express, say,
y in terms of x using the given equality, substitute it in
the expression 3
x + 4 y, and determine the maximum of the obtained
expression with one variable using the standard algorithm.
The problem may be solved using far more elementary methods,
however. One can, for example, see that since the expression
16
x
2
− 24xy + 9y
2
is a perfect square and therefore nonnegative for all values of
x and
y, (3 x + 4 y)
2
≤ 25x
2
+ 25y
2
. From this, it immediately follows that
3
x + 4 y ≤ 25 (and the fact that equality is achieved is obvious, since it
is achieved in the original inequality, 16
x
2
− 24xy + 9y
2
≥ 0).
Another solution may be obtained by writing the equality
3
x + 4y = k (k is what is to be maximized),
expressing, say,
y in terms of k and x, and substituting it in the equality
x
2
+ y
2
= 25. It remains for one to find the greatest k for which the
obtained quadratic equation has a solution.
An unexpected solution can be obtained using vectors. Indeed,
consider the vectors (
x, y) and (3, 4). The expression 3x + 4y is
obviously a scalar product of these vectors. But the scalar product of
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
vectors, as we know, does not exceed the product of their lengths (but
can be equal to this product). The length of one vector is
x
2
+ y
2
=
√
25
= 5, and the length of the other is
√
3
2
+ 4
2
=
√
25
= 5, which
yields that the maximum is 25.
Interested readers may also find a purely geometric solution
by investigating the behavior of secants and tangents to the circle
x
2
+ y
2
= 25, a trigonometric solution, and others as well.
To repeat, practice in solving difficult school problems is in
our view extremely beneficial to the mathematical development of
schoolchildren. It would be fair to say that all three of the approaches
to selecting topics for study listed above are implemented in one form
or another in every specialized school. It is another matter that the
relation between them is by no means always identical. Today, in certain
schools, already noted, teachers mainly give their students difficult
school problems, sometimes forgetting that probably nothing can
take the place of the experience of building a theory by constructing
arguments and proofs (or building a theory by solving problems)
and of working with difficult concepts not associated with school
mathematics. Conversely, in some schools, students concentrate on
mathematics that is not part of the ordinary curriculum, sometimes
losing the connection with school mathematics and hurrying exces-
sively, in our view, to move on to abstract and generalized concepts
for which they are too young. The optimal relation between, and the
optimal selection of, topics for study are determined first and foremost
by the makeup of the student body. There are a variety of ways in
which students can develop the “techniques of mathematical thinking”
and be enriched by the experience of working with new, deeper ideas
and concepts; what is important, however, is that educators set such
objectives.
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