Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
by relying on the completely proven properties of the quadratic
trinomial and of inequalities. Such an elementary investigation of
functions (in grades 8–9) allows students to concentrate precisely on
the meaning of the concepts they are studying, rather than on the
technique of using derivatives. The following problems may serve as
examples:
• Find the range of the function y = 3x − x
2
.
• Prove that the function y = x
3
− 3x is increasing on the interval
[1, +∞).
• Find the minimum of the function y =
√
4
x
2
− 12x + 9 − 2.
(Galitsky, Goldman, and Zvavich, 1997, pp. 101–103)
To solve, for example, the first of these problems, it is enough to
note that the range of the function is the totality of those
y for which
the quadratic equation
x
2
− 3x + y = 0 is solvable; the range can,
therefore, be found easily by writing the condition of the nonnegativity
of the discriminant of this equation, 9
− 4y ≥ 0, from which we see
that the range is the interval
−∞, 2
1
4
. Note that it is not sufficient
to indicate that this function attains its maximum at
x =
3
2
(which
is easy to determine by completing the square). It must be proven
that the function attains all values that are less than the value of the
function at
x =
3
2
(and students in grades 8–9 do not yet have the
concept of continuity or limit). Discussing such topics helps students
to understand more deeply what exactly is being proven, what exactly
this or that concept consists of, what role definitions play, and so on.
The elementary investigation of functions can also touch on more
complicated issues, such as convexity. Moreover, it may be connected
with constructing graphs through geometric transformations. Once
again, the ordinary school curriculum assumes that students will learn
that, say, the graph of the function
y = x
2
+ 1 may be obtained from
the graph of the function
y = x
2
by means of a parallel translation
upward along the
y-axis by one unit. In classes with an advanced course
of study in mathematics, students discuss far more intricate examples
of both graphs and transformations (Karp, 1992). Note that simply
constructing the graph of the function
y =
1
f(x)
by transforming the
graph of the function
y = f(x), which is a relatively simple operation,
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opens up the possibility not only of appreciating the diversity of the
transformations of the plane, but also of developing a “feel” for certain
concepts (for example, the concept of the infinitely large value), which
will subsequently be studied in courses in calculus.
Geometry offers many examples of such topics — topics that are not
part of the college curriculum, but not entirely part of the ordinary
school curriculum either. Lyapin (1967) described how students at
a specialized school studied the geometry of transformations while
solving construction problems [such courses were undoubtedly influ-
enced by the books of Yaglom (1955, 1956)]. Other examples of
topics studied in specialized schools include (Atanasyan et al., 1996)
inversion with respect to a circle, the classic theorems of elementary
geometry (such as Simpson’s or Euler’s line theorems), and theorems
about the collinearity of points and the concurrency of lines (Ceva,
Menelaus, etc.).
The list of such topics, which lie, as it were, between ordinary
schools and college, can be extended at length, but students at
specialized schools also study a third category of topics that must be
mentioned: traditional topics from the school course in mathematics.
Their study of these topics differs from what goes on in ordinary
schools — first, because it is more proof-laden and systematic, and
second, because it includes more substantive and difficult problems.
It is clear, for example, that the presentation of the topic “Logarith-
mic and Exponential Functions” confronts the difficulty of defining a
real power and of proving the continuity of the power, logarithmic,
and exponential functions — a difficulty that is insurmountable in
ordinary schools. Students in specialized schools possess a sufficient
background to understand the essence of the problems that arise,
and sufficient knowledge and techniques to overcome them with the
teacher’s guidance. It turns out, therefore, that the study of this topic in
specialized schools unfolds in a completely different fashion from how
this happens in ordinary schools. We will not discuss how this topic may
be studied, however, but rather focus on the role that problems play.
In Russia, a tradition has evolved of writing and solving difficult
problems on topics from the standard school course in mathematics.
College entrance exams (traditionally conducted by each college
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