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In practice, however, the schools with an advanced course of study
in mathematics that began to appear — and starting with the following
school year, 1960–61, their number grew quickly — turned out not to
be especially mass-educational, but quite selective. Most of their grad-
uates did not limit themselves to a secondary education, but continued
their education in universities. In these classes, students really did have
to work very hard: for example, in ninth grade, 11–12 hours per week
were allocated for mathematics, which was twice the usual amount
(Shvartsburd, 1963, pp. 138–146); furthermore, the course content
was far more intensive and challenging. But this was, obviously, not
exactly the labor that the propagandists of “productive labor” originally
had in mind. As Shvartsburd (1963) very carefully wrote:
After obtaining permission from and being well received by the
Computational Center of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, we
set ourselves the goal of organizing practical training in such a way as
to take up as little as possible of its employees’ time and to use it as
productively as possible. (p. 9)
In other words, direct work even at the Computational Center
(let alone at a factory) was not supposed to take up too much
time. Other schools that appeared after Shvartsburd’s school operated
according to the same schema. By July 1961, the education ministry
of the RSFSR approved the first version of the basic documentation
(curriculum, programs in the general course in mathematics and special
academic subjects, etc.) for schools preparing computer programmers
(Shvartsburd, 1963).
Thus, the original idea developed in a way that might appear
paradoxical: the government had seemingly planned to force all
students to engage in physical labor, and instead schools appeared
in which students engaged in academic labor far more than they
had done previously. The role of the schools’ organizers — both the
administrators, who were usually experienced in conducting business
in the Soviet Union, and the mathematicians, who supported them —
was quite great (thus, Shvartsburd cited the assistance received from
the well-known mathematician N. Ya. Vilenkin, not to mention the
then first deputy minister of education of the RSFSR, the well-known
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
mathematician A. I. Markushevich; on the whole, schools with an
advanced course of study in mathematics at once received the support
of a wide circle of scientists). Yet it would be misguided to assume that
they had managed to outwit the government, as if the government did
not realize what was going on.
Of course, government leaders were to some extent constrained by
the need to adhere to ideological dogmas; indeed, it may be supposed
that they actually thought in these terms. But these individuals could
not have been mistaken for sincere fighters for egalitarian communist
ideals. For them, political reality was far more important.
One element in this reality was the need to engage in military-
technological rivalry with the United States. This need spurred them
variously to support (seek out, develop) the creators of the “nuclear
shield of the homeland” — highly qualified scientists and engineers.
Schools with an advanced course of study in mathematics were seen
as a forge for such professionals. For example, in an interview with us,
the well-known Moscow mathematics educator Vladimir Dubrovsky
(2005), who worked at the famous Kolmogorov boarding school for
the mathematically gifted, deliberately emphasized the role of the
physicist Kikoin (who later became editor-in-chief of the magazine
Kvant) in the creation of physics–mathematics boarding schools which
will be discussed below: “He was more involved with government
circles. After all, he was the third-ranking person in the atom bomb
project.”
The then first secretary of the communist party (CPSU) and the
leader of the country, Khrushchev, had no intention of stopping at
the 11-year school with polytechnic education. Today, formerly strictly
classified materials from the Politburo (Presidium) of the Central
Committee of the CPSU have become available, making it possible to
judge what exactly the government was planning. A short note from
December 23, 1963, reads: “All schools must be switched to a system
of eight-year education. Talent selection: mathematicians, physicists,
biologists, chemists” (Fursenko, 2004, p. 782). A more elaborate
transcript preserves the argument behind this note. Khrushchev said:
Some people say that in our age, the age of the atom and outer space,
we need people with secondary education, we need mathematicians
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