The War Against Catiline
, 10)
Clearly this cannot be taken at face value. First-century accounts,
both of the past and of contemporary imperialism, were fully
implicated in the struggle for power and the control of meaning
as the republic tottered; Caesar’s reports back to Rome of his own
activities in Gaul are simply the most extreme example. Later
histories, written under the stultifying influence of powerful and
temperamental monarchs, were similarly influenced or distorted. To
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25
uncover the reality of Roman imperialism, it is necessary to confront
not only the way that Rome was mythologised by later societies but
also the myths and polemics that the Romans developed themselves.
moTIvaTIon and IdEology
One approach to understanding Roman imperialism is to focus on
the factors that inclined the Romans to make war: not the specific
tactical or political considerations that affected an individual
decision, but the general conceptions and ideological structures that
made it more likely than not, especially under the Middle Republic
(up to the mid second century BCE), that Rome would despatch
an army in any given year. As discussed above, the nature of the
decision-making process in Rome means that the reasons behind
any individual decision were almost certainly mixed, but, at least
for the elite, it is possible to identify a number of consistent factors
shaping their choices.
20
The first was an obsessive concern for security. It is not necessary
to accept the Romans’ claims that all (or nearly all) their wars were
fought in self-defence to recognise that these claims were not simply
a sop to public opinion, whether in Rome (where the people might
be reluctant to fight except in defence of their home) or across
the Mediterranean (where trust in Rome’s good faith could be as
important as fear of Roman power in keeping allies and neutrals
in line). The early years of Roman history established a mindset
of prickly defensiveness and suspicion: the fifth century had been
a desperate struggle to resist the attacks of powerful neighbours;
the beginning of the fourth century saw Celtic raids into Italy and
the sack of Rome itself around 386 BCE; and the third century
brought Pyrrhus of Epirus and a mercenary army, invited across
from Greece by the city of Tarentum to check Roman power, and
then the Carthaginians. The Romans had a strong sense of their own
past, kept alive by handing down stories of their heroic ancestors
(and, according to some historians, through the regular performance
of historical plays) long before they began to write formal history.
21
They internalised not only the values of the past but also its sense
of being surrounded by a hostile world; and, of course, as their
success in repelling one enemy brought them increased power and
wealth and thus persuaded others of the need to check their growing
power, the world frequently confirmed their suspicions.
22
Any city or
nation that was not under firm Roman control, whether informal or
formal, was a potential threat, if not in itself then because it might
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ThE roman EmpIrE
ally with a rival power. Rome did become less belligerent (at least
in terms of the number of wars) after the Second Punic War because
it no longer faced an enemy that could menace its own existence;
but, as the final destruction of Carthage shows, the senate could
still be persuaded to act aggressively in the supposed interests of
Roman security.
One element in Roman decision-making, therefore, was a genuine
– if sometimes entirely groundless – fear of the consequences if they
failed to intervene in a region perceived as troublesome. However,
the fact that we hear about Roman generals being criticised for
suspected war-mongering makes it clear that there were other
factors which made war seem an attractive as well as necessary
policy to members of the elite. The most obvious was gain.
23
Successful war-making and conquest were generally profitable for all
concerned: slaves and booty were seized in the immediate aftermath
of victory (the defeat of Macedon in 167 BCE brought in 120
million sesterces of booty); countries that were allowed to remain
independent might be required to pay large indemnities to Rome,
while those that were annexed as provinces had to pay regular
tribute in cash or goods (Macedonia yielded an annual revenue of
2.4 million sesterces). Large areas of land could be confiscated and
redistributed to Roman settlers and members of the elite, while
assets like mines and quarries were taken into Roman ownership
(the Spanish silver mines produced 36.5 million sesterces every
year). These profits were spread throughout Roman society: not
only amongst the victorious general and his troops, the rapacious
governor and the societies of tax-collectors, but Roman society
as a whole, with large-scale building projects and distributions
of grain funded from the proceeds of conquest. Of course, not
all conquests were equally profitable or could compare with the
enormous riches captured from the empires of the East; if a strict
cost–benefit analysis were applied, it is highly arguable whether the
efforts to conquer and subdue some regions were really worth it (the
income from the Spanish silver mines, for example, barely covered
the costs of pacifying the region).
24
But the Romans did not apply
cost–benefit analyses in a consistent manner: the military resources
were available, in the form of the duty of citizens to serve in the
army and the requirement on Rome’s Italian allies to supply troops,
so that one might almost speak of an opportunity cost if these
forces were not employed productively in war in a given year.
25
The
expedition into Dalmatia in 156 BCE, on the grounds that the army
needed exercise, was an extreme example (there had also been raids
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across the frontier and insults as provocation), but it is revealing
of the Romans’ casual attitude towards the deployment of their
forces when they were not confronted with a really serious threat.
26
The costs and benefits of making war were not equally shared, so
that the consuls had little reason to hesitate even if a majority in
the senate was reluctant to take on further commitments; further,
reliable information was inevitably in short supply, so that rumours
of a country’s wealth might be sufficient to persuade waverers. This
is not to say that all, or even any, decisions to go to war were made
solely for reasons of profit, but they were always made with an
awareness of the likely profitability of conquest for those involved.
Discussion of the material motivation for Roman war-making
sometimes becomes conflated with modern ideas of ‘economic
imperialism’, in which overseas interventions are seen to be driven
by national economic interests or by special interest groups lobbying
and bribing the decision-makers. There is little evidence to suggest
that this was a significant factor in antiquity.
27
The Romans did not
conceptualise ‘the economy’ as a significant sector of society, and
certainly did not regard it as part of the role of the state to promote
trade or economic growth.
28
On a few occasions the stated grounds
for military intervention were to protect Roman or Italian traders
from harassment by pirates (for example, in Illyria in 229 BCE;
Polybius, 2.8.3), but this seems to be a matter of defending citizens
as a matter of national pride and status, and of responding to a
threat to Roman security and dominance, rather than protecting
trade per se. The
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