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ThE roman EmpIrE
to make an agreement that the Carthaginians would remain south
of the river Ebro; then, in the late 220s BCE, they established a
relationship with the town of Saguntum, in the heart of that territory.
With the promise of Roman protection, the Saguntines seized the
opportunity to attack a neighbouring community and were punished
by Hannibal, whereupon the Romans issued a blanket ultimatum:
hand over the general or face war. The immediate consequences were
disastrous for Rome, as Hannibal crossed the Alps and defeated a
series of Roman generals in Italy, but the conclusion of the war was
the reduction of Carthage from a world power to a minor state,
forbidden to make war without Roman permission and required
to pay a hefty indemnity to Rome for 60 years, while Rome added
Spain to its overseas territories and now enjoyed undisputed mastery
of the western Mediterranean.
Carthage remained a prosperous city, with rich agricultural
resources and thriving trade connections; some Romans became
convinced that, despite the loss of its empire, it would always be
a threat to their security. According to the contemporary Greek
historian Polybius (36.2), they simply waited for a suitable pretext
that would persuade other nations that they acted honourably;
the Carthaginians’ breach of the treaty conditions presented the
opportunity to destroy their naval capacity, the basis of their old
empire and of the future empire that the Romans feared or professed
to fear, once and for all. Faced with the prospect of having their city
destroyed in order to save it from itself, the Carthaginian response to
the ultimatum was to fight; despite having given up their weapons,
they successfully resisted the Roman army until 146 BCE. By then,
the majority of the population had died of starvation or in battle; the
remainder – numbers are notoriously unreliable in ancient sources,
but the figure of 50,000 is cited – were sold into slavery, as was
customary. The city burned for days and was then abandoned.
The story that the fields were then sown with salt, to destroy their
fertility and prevent anyone from living there, is a fabrication first
encountered in the nineteenth century; the Romans, rather more
practically, declared the territory to be public land, redistributed it
to a mixture of local farmers and Italian settlers, and established it
as
the new province of Africa, paying a regular tribute to Rome.
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approachIng roman
ImpErIalIsm
The Third Punic War was one of many fought by Rome in the course
of its rise to the status of a world empire, from the conquest of its
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ThE dynamIcs of roman ImpErIalIsm
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immediate neighbour Veii in 396 BCE, through the subjugation of
the rival empires of Carthage, Macedon (168 BCE), Syria (63 BCE)
and Egypt (30 BCE), to the invasion of Britain in 43 CE. While not
every war resulted in the expansion of its power, let alone in the
acquisition of new territory, the long-term trend was unmistakable.
The obvious line of investigation is the nature of this persistent
aggression and drive to conquer, the origins and dynamics of Roman
imperialism. Surprisingly, however, a number of objections have
been raised to thinking about the subject in these terms.
There is no Latin equivalent of ‘imperialism’.
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The word
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