partial and misleading, cherry-picking the most positive aspects and
air-brushing the violence and inequality on which they were founded.
Like the Rome of Hollywood movies, it is a fictional construct
based mainly on the monuments of architecture and literary culture,
decorated with touches of the exotic and transgressive. A striking
example of this is a remark made by Benjamin Disraeli in a speech
of 1879:
One of the greatest of the Romans, when asked what were his
politics, replied,
Imperium et libertas
. That would not make a
bad programme for a British Ministry. It is one from which Her
Majesty’s advisers do not shrink.
36
In fact, the quotation is a fiction; no Roman ever said that, but,
whether or not Disraeli was conscious of his invention, the line
works because it accords with our expectations and image of the
Roman Empire.
The Rome to which apologists for empire refer is presented as
a stable, known object which can easily be compared in all its
facets with modern experiences, but this is an illusion. Our actual
knowledge of Rome is fragmentary and sometimes contradictory,
with every statement needing to be qualified or questioned; the
labour of scholars since the eighteenth century has tended to
multiply uncertainties rather than establish certainties as growing
understanding of the way modern societies work has highlighted
our ignorance about the operations of Roman society. Furthermore,
the history of Rome spans at least a millennium and a half, and
the history of its overseas empire in Western Europe covers more
than 750 years. It was, of course, far more stable than any modern
society, but it still changed significantly during that time, and can
be reduced to a single and straightforward image of ‘the Roman
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ThE roman EmpIrE
Empire’ only through drastic simplification, either concentrating on
a particular period (as many accounts focus either on the virtuous
Republic or on the peaceful empire of the Principate) or creating a
composite image that never existed in reality. Of course, the writers
employing Rome for analytical or rhetorical purposes have little
use for such academic pedantry, since it undermines the usefulness
of the example; for all that their arguments draw strength from the
supposed reality of their historical evidence, they are really deploying
the modern conception of ‘Rome’ rather than its reality. This is one
reason why the Roman Empire is worth studying: not as a means
of understanding better how to run an empire and dominate other
countries, or of finding a justification for humanitarian or military
intervention, but as a means of understanding and questioning
modern conceptions of empire and imperialism, and the way they
are deployed in contemporary political debates.
The relationship between ideas of the past and present conceptions
is not one-sided; just as developing historical understanding of
Rome influenced modern ideas about empire and the encounter with
other cultures, so those modern ideas and experiences influenced
understanding of the ancient world, through the questions that
scholars asked of their material and the ideas that they brought to
bear in its interpretation. The obvious example is the concept of the
‘Romanisation’ of the provinces, which developed out of questions
about the nature of cultural change in Britain under Roman rule that
were directly inspired by British experiences in India. Recent studies
of the uses of this concept in ancient history and archaeology reveal
how those contemporary influences led to one-sided readings of the
ancient evidence, over-emphasising the role of the Roman state in
imposing change and neglecting the active role of the provincials.
37
There has also been a tendency to see Roman imperialism as a
coherent and directed process, because that is what the experience
of later empires (which sought in part deliberately to recreate the
Roman empire) led scholars to expect to find in their sources;
further, there is the habit of regarding its development as inevitable,
on the basis of theories that see imperialism as the outcome of
natural human tendencies.
38
Classical studies were, or became, an
imperialist enterprise shaped by empire and working to sustain it,
both through their role in the education of the governing elite and
by providing the foundation for the claims of the West to possess a
superior civilisation. For the most part, until very recently, ancient
historians and literary scholars have been in complete denial of this:
not only of the dependence of their interpretations on ideas and
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conceptions shaped by the West’s encounter with other cultures but
also of the role of empire and its requirements in determining what
was recovered from the classical past, shaping what was excavated
and collected as well as what questions were asked of the material.
39
The study of post-colonial classics, the academic equivalent of
literary works such as Derek Walcott’s
Omeros
, exploring the role
of the classical legacy in European imperial projects, is a very recent
development.
rooTs of ImpErIalIsm
The aim of this book is to consider, and establish a dialogue
between, the three facets of the encounter between Roman and
modern imperialism: the way that images of classical antiquity have
been shaped by modern experiences of imperialism and colonialism;
the way that modern discourses on imperialism, globalisation
and modernisation have been shaped by the eternally contested
image of Rome; and the way that modern scholarly interpreta-
tions of Roman imperialism, when the constant dialogue and
reciprocal influence between past and present are taken properly
into account, may be able to illuminate the dynamics, consequences
and trajectories of modern imperialism. The last of these is probably
the most contentious, given the vast differences between antiquity
and modernity in terms of technology, knowledge and social
organisation; if we have imperialism at all in the contemporary
world – a much-debated point – it must be a very different sort
of imperialism, and analogies with the Roman Empire must, as
illustrated above, always be suspect. Nevertheless, historical
analogies can illuminate through contrast as much as comparison;
the study of an alien culture and its particular approach to issues
that persist today – most obviously, the management of diversity,
the globalisation of culture and the nature of economic development
– may throw aspects of the modern world into sharper relief. If
nothing else, a fuller understanding of how the Roman Empire
really worked offers a defence against the tendentious claims of
contemporary apologists for Western dominance.
This is unavoidably a partial, personal and somewhat polemical
account of several equally vast and controversial subjects. The aim
here is to offer an introduction to the most important themes in
the study of the origins, nature and impact of Roman imperialism.
This is not a narrative history of the Roman Empire: that is partly
due to the author’s preference for analysis and a wish to understand
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ThE roman EmpIrE
the underlying logic and dynamics of economic, social, cultural and
political systems; partly due to a feeling that the market is already
over-burdened with narrative accounts; and partly due to a basic
ideological suspicion of that sort of history, at least in the case of
Rome. The power of narrative is precisely that it does not make its
interpretative assumptions and judgements explicit, but simply tells
a story; in this instance, it is all too easy and common for narrative
histories of the Roman Empire to present its triumph, ever so subtly,
as an inevitable progress (as the Romans themselves tended to) or
as the outcome of mere chance in battle and political debate (as
many modern commentators imply). For a full understanding of
the history of Rome, this book needs to be read in conjunction with
one or more such narratives (see the section on Further Reading
for some suggestions). The test of any interpretation is whether it
can make sense of the succession of individual events – but equally
the connections between events are invented (rather than found)
by the historian on the basis of their conceptual framework and
presuppositions. The issues discussed in this book should offer some
indication of what ideas and issues may underlie the particular
choices of emphasis and interpretation in any narrative of the
Empire’s history.
Even in selecting themes for analysis, it has been necessary to
focus on certain aspects of particular topics rather than attempting
to offer a comprehensive account, and decisions about what is
most important are inevitably based on ideological as much as on
pragmatic grounds. Two issues are particularly important in this
regard. Firstly, there is the balance to be struck between the nature
of the surviving evidence and the importance of doing justice to the
whole of Roman society. The majority of historical sources for the
Roman Empire were produced by or for the educated ruling elite,
and speak almost exclusively of their experiences and attitudes. The
evidence for the lives of the mass of the population, including the
provincial subjects of Rome, is predominantly archaeological and so
offers more insights about some aspects of their lives – the material
conditions of their existence, most obviously – than about their
thoughts or experiences. An account based solely on the material
evidence would have little to say about the dynamics of the political,
economic and social systems that shaped the lives of the population
of the Roman Empire; an account based solely on the literary and
epigraphic sources would say next to nothing about the lives of the
vast majority, and would tend to take many questionable aspects
of Roman life entirely for granted – but it would be full of colour
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and incident, which is why the majority of earlier accounts of the
Roman Empire have, indeed, offered such a perspective.
Secondly, there is the all-encompassing nature of Roman
imperialism: without its empire, Rome would not have been
Rome as we know it. All aspects of Roman society were permeated
and influenced by the acquisition of empire, at least by the time
that historical sources began to be produced; our knowledge of
pre-imperial Rome is shaped by the perceptions, and nostalgia, of
the imperial era. An account of the Roman empire is arguably an
account of the entirety of Roman civilisation, a task far beyond a
book of this size; my aim here is to focus as far as possible on the
dynamics of imperialism and its immediate consequences, especially
those aspects which either drew the attention of later writers on
imperialism, such as the changes in the culture and society of the
conquered provinces, or which seem to have something to say about
contemporary concerns, such as the economic development of the
empire. From the dynamics of the Roman conquest of the world
(Chapter 1), the nature of Roman rule (Chapter 2), the economic
impact of empire (Chapter 3) and the social and cultural influence
of Rome (Chapter 4) to the collapse of the Roman system and its
aftermath (Envoi), the example of Rome has shaped our modern
conceptions of ‘civilisation’ and what happens when that civilisation
meets another, apparently alien, culture. It is Rome above all that
leads us to view those outside our culture as barbarians who
must be compelled to conform to our expectations of thought
and behaviour, or else feared and mistrusted as a threat to the
foundations of our civilisation.
40
In Virgil’s
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