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Cultural layers
The different cultural layers artifacts, values, and assumptions, as mentioned by Schein
(1985), will be defined and analyzed for relationships with ICT and the workplace below.
Artifacts
Schein (1984) describes artifacts as “
the constructed environment of the organization,
its architecture, technology, office layout, manner of dress, visible or audible behavior
patterns, and public documentation such as charters, employee orientation materials
”.
Browaeys and Price (2008) state that artifacts consist of, among others, rituals, dress codes,
contacts, contracts, language and eating habits. Hogan and Coote (2014) also mention
organizational architecture as part of artifacts. Pettigrew (1979) claims that artifacts include
things as art, technology, and visible and audible behavior patterns as well as heroes,
language, rituals and ceremony. Artifacts are the most observable and explicit characteristics
of organizational culture (Schein, 1985), and make employees understand what is expected
within the organization (Meyer, 1995; Mahler, 1997). However, some artifacts (including
information technology) are claimed to be not culturally neutral, and may come to symbolize
a host of different values driven by underlying assumptions and their meaning, use, and
consequences (Feldman and March 1981; Robey and Markus 1984; Scholz 1990; Coombs et
al. 1992).
Technology is, among others, one of the aspects of the cultural artifacts of an
organization (Schein, 1984; Pettigrew, 1979). Since the T in ICT stands for technology, this
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already proves the relationship between ICT and cultural artifacts. Another aspect of cultural
artifacts is claimed to be the physical office layout (Schein, 1984; Hogan and Coote, 2014).
Other studies also stressed the relationship between physical office layout and organizational
culture (e.g. Ashkanasy et al., 2000; Van Meel, 2000). Harrison and Cairns (2008) claim that
the workplace is a mirror for the values of the organization, meaning that a well-designed
workplace contributes to employees’ feeling of being appreciated by the organization. Every
workplace solution should be evaluated in terms of, among others, the extent to which it
communicates the organizational values (Parkin et al., 2005). Elsbach and Bechky (2007)
claim that the design of the workplace creates certain atmospheres, and thereby expresses
underlying values and norms of an organization. Also Clapperton and Vanhoutte (2014) state
that workplaces will speak to visitors about the values an organization espouses. This ‘visible’
part of organizational culture also expresses the social hierarchy in organizations (Schein,
1985).
NWW relates to the different cultural artifacts as well. Technological developments
are seen as one of the drivers or facilitators of NWW (Mansell and Silverstone, 1997; Avolio
et al., 2000; Van der Voordt, 2004). With NWW, the behavior patterns of employees will
change. As described at ‘behavior formalization’, behavior is even seen in grey literature as
one of the three B’s concerning NWW (along with bricks and bytes), according to Baane et al.
(2010). Employees’ behavior needs to be formalized in terms of habituating clean desk policy
and paperless offices. Furthermore, managers need to perform leadership on an output-
oriented basis (Locke and Latham, 1990; Cascio, 2000; Jung et al., 2003; Bijl, 2009). Trust is
thereby an important factor (Baruch, 2000; Bailey and Kurland, 2002; Den Hengst et al.,
2008; Baane et al., 2010). Beside technology and behavior, also the (physical) office layout is
seen as an important factor that is influenced by NWW (Bijl, 2007; Blok, 2012; Blok et al.,
2012). Therefore, most aspects of Schein’s (1984) definition of cultural artifacts are
influenced by NWW (namely technology, (visible or audible) behavior, and the constructed
environment (architecture/office layout)), showing its relationship. Changing behavioral
patterns create different values, which will reflect on the workplace. However, since
behavior also concerns the values of an organization, this will be elaborated on in the next
subparagraph (‘values’). Technology and the physical office layout thus seem to be the most
important factors of cultural artifacts in the context of NWW. Technology advances are even
seen as the most important megatrend influencing the way people will work towards 2020
(ISS, 2013). Technological developments enable NWW, which in turn require a different
physical setting of workplaces. Work has become more time and place independent. In old-
fashioned offices there was a mix of big and small privately owned, territorial offices. With
NWW there is just one big open non-territorial area with a mixture of different departments
working in the same area. Employees increasingly work outside of the office, having a
devastating effect on traditional occupancy rates (Myerson et al., 2010). The office therefore
gradually becomes a place of social interaction, where there is room for meetings and social
encounters instead of for the individual workplace (Blok et al., 2009). Technology as a
cultural artifact (and thereby enabled NWW) thus influence another cultural artifact, namely
the physical setting of workplaces.
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Be reminded that part of this study is focused on the influence of organizational culture on the workplace.
The fact that the physical layout of the workplace is actually part of organizational culture demonstrates the
overlap between the different aspects of NWW and therefore highlights the complexity of this subject.
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Therefore, the physical office layout is included in the empirical part of this study as
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