areas considered to be in the realm of sociolinguistics, such as choice of address
forms (Kasper and Dahl 1991; Stalnaker 1972; Serra et al. 2000). An even greater
move toward sociolinguistics is evident in the introduction to Rose and Kasper
(2001), who characterize pragmatics “as interpersonal rhetoric—the way speakers
and writers accomplish goals as social actors who do not just need to get things done
but must attend to their interpersonal relationships with other participants at the same
time” (Rose and Kasper 2001, 2). In the intersection of second-language studies and
pragmatics, research is best characterized by Stalnaker’s definition (1972, 383) of
pragmatics as “the study of linguistic acts and the contexts in which they are
performed” (where “contexts” often have been interpreted as scenarios created by
researchers). Within this intersection, the most-studied areas (in order of decreasing
attention) are speech acts, conversational management, and conversational
implicature.
Within L2 studies, definitions of pragmatics reflect the dominance of speech
acts as an area of inquiry. Pragmatic competence generally is partitioned into social
and linguistic knowledge, although the boundaries vary with the definitions.
Blum-Kulka (1982) posits a three-way division between social acceptability (which
determines when to perform a speech act, sequencing and appropriateness, and de-
gree of directness), linguistic acceptability (deviations from which result in utter-
ances that are “perfectly grammatical but fail to conform to the target language in
terms of what is considered an ‘idiomatic’ speech act realization” [1982, 52]), and
pragmatic acceptability (that an utterance has the intended illocutionary force).
Blum-Kulka (1982) identifies unintended shifts in illocutionary force as the most se-
rious consequence of nonnative speech act realization. Such shifts can occur with
both linguistically acceptable and unacceptable utterances. Thomas (1983) identifies
sociopragmatic failure (inappropriate utterances resulting from a misunderstanding
of social standards) and pragmalinguistic failure (utterances that convey unintended
illocutionary force). A more recent formulation of these concepts in terms of knowl-
edge rather than failure comes from Kasper (2001):
Pragmalinguistic knowledge requires mappings of form, meaning, force, and
context. . . . Sociopragmatics refers to the link between action-relevant context
factors and communicative action (e.g., deciding whether to request an exten-
sion, complain about the neighbor’s barking dog) and does not necessarily re-
quire any links to specific forms at all (Kasper 2001, 51).
Cohen (1996) suggests a third division—between sociocultural and socio-
linguistic ability. Sociocultural ability refers to a speaker’s ability “to determine
whether it is acceptable to perform the speech act at all in the given situation and, if so,
to select one or more semantic formulas that would be appropriate in the realization of
the given speech act” (1996, 254). In contrast, sociolinguistic ability consists of
speakers’ control over their selection of language forms used to realize a speech act.
Cohen’s introduction of
control
is particularly compatible with an acquisitional per-
spective: Do the forms exist in the learners’ grammars and lexicons, and can they be
accessed?
66
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: