The study I describe in this chapter took just such a comparative approach to the
study of discourse markers. By comparing contexts in which “because” is used to those
in which it is not used, the study investigates what aspects of social relationship speak-
ers seek to index with “because.” In this study of talk in preschool children’s same-sex
friendship groups, “because” was used more in girls’ friendship groups than in boys’
friendship groups. The main research question of the analysis was to discover why.
Girls’ talk was characterized by collaborative narratives of pretense (Cook-Gumperz
1995) and boys’ by arguments, in which speakers opposed one another and spoke au-
thoritatively (“No, you can’t do that, two people are in there!”). By analyzing features
of the social contexts in which “because” was and was not produced, the study was de-
signed to answer the following questions: Could use of “because” have to do with the
establishment of a collaborative stance? Could omitting the marker have to do with the
establishment of an authoritative, threatening demeanor?
This study undertook a qualitative analysis of the use of “because.” The analysis
reported here examines whether children were using “because” to establish a collab-
orative participation framework, in the sense of continuing the partner’s turn, as de-
scribed by Schleppegrell (1991). The analysis was also designed to look at whether
“because” was used to establish a collaborative participation framework in other
ways. The study also examined how “because” was used at the level of action struc-
tures and ideational structures.
The Study
Children in two preschool classrooms in California participated in an ethnographic
study of talk in friendship groups. The children were from middle-class families. Ten
four-year-old girls and eleven four-year-old boys, who participated in friendship
groups of three or more children in the classroom, were counted in the analysis.
Two-thirds were European American, and one-third were of other ethnicities. The
children were followed and videotaped in their friendship groups in each classroom
over one year.
Interactions were transcribed, and transcripts were analyzed for justifications—
defined as explanations of states and events in the world or as reasons for the com-
mission of speech acts and claims. (A second coder analyzed one-quarter of the tran-
scripts, and there was an agreement of 83 percent between the two coders in identify-
ing justifications in the texts.) Then we examined whether these justifications
contained a “because” marker between the head act and justification. Qualitative
analysis of how “because” was used for marking participation frameworks and other
uses was conducted. Some of these factors were then entered into quantitative
analyses.
Results
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