1992). A series of studies on children’s use of causal expressions by Bloom and col-
leagues supports this view. They found that children develop an understanding of
causality and the ability to express causal relations using connectives such as “be-
cause” and “so” between the ages of two and three years (Bloom and Caspides 1987;
Hood and Bloom 1979). They also found that children’s early use of “because” is re-
stricted primarily to the domain of psychological/motivational cause for actions,
rather than physical causation. Bartsch and Wellman (1995) add that young chil-
dren’s explanations of action is desire based at first and that belief-based explanation
of action appears later—around the age of three years. Dunn and Brown (1993) re-
port that at thirty-three months, children’s causal talk is mostly about behaviors or ac-
tions, but at forty months they talk more about the causal relations of internal states.
In general, there is strong consensus that between the ages of two and four years,
children begin to show rudimentary understanding of “belief ” through their use of
language.
Naturalistic data regarding young children’s justifications suggest that being
able to explain actions and behaviors is important in their social life. Existing analy-
ses of naturalistic data have not yet shown, however, just when or how children start
using their understanding of belief and causality to persuade others about their own
beliefs. In particular, analyses of naturalistic data to date provide almost no informa-
tion about when children start to offer justifications for their beliefs by referring to
evidence to support them. One notable exception reveals that young children’s justifi-
cations typically occur in disputes over a person’s goals or actions but that they rarely
provide justifications in disputes over the truth of a proposition or the nature of cate-
gorization (Dunn and Munn 1987). Given, however, that in adult discourse one of the
most fundamental argumentative goals is to convince others that what you say is
true—providing evidence to support your statement, if necessary—children’s ability
to defend their own beliefs should gradually develop as their understanding of sua-
sion becomes more sophisticated. If the hypothesis that verbal communication con-
tinuously cultivates children’s sociocommunicative competency throughout infancy
and in the early childhood years is correct, children’s preliminary understanding of
other’s mental states may also enable them to detect the need to justify their state-
ments and beliefs and, moreover, enable them to offer adequate justifications for their
beliefs, provided they have a communicative need to do so.
Thus, the present investigation addresses the questions of when and how pre-
schoolers begin to provide adequate justifications for the veracity of their statements
in naturalistic and experimental settings. To tap Japanese three- and four-year-olds’
willingness and ability to justify the truth of their own statements, we created a task
in which children first make guesses about the identity of familiar pictorial objects
shown only partially and then find those guesses constantly challenged by an adult.
We focused on their use of the Japanese discourse connective
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