Pernilla Hallonsten Halling

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5.4. Summary and conclusion

Language	Adverbial
Comment
Kalaallisut (Eskimo-Aleut)	V-ptcp/cvb-ins
Krongo (Kadugli-Krongo)	SVC
Lahu (Sino-Tibetan) Ma’di (Central Sudanic)	qha-V N (N) r^`1	‘all, completely’
Maltese (Afro-Asiatic)	bi-/bla-N	‘by, with’/‘without’
Mapudungun (Auracanian) Nuu-chah-nulth (Wakashan)	^V^-keadjvz^-chedistr SVC
Slave (Athapaskan-Eyak-Tlingit) Swahili (Atlantic-Congo)	ST.V-ta_pos_t vii-/viii-N
Turkish (Turkic) Urarina (isolate)	ADJ olarak _cv_b ^ST.V^-iptcp/cvb

5.4. Summary and conclusion

In this chapter, it has been shown that simple adverbs are attested in the majority of the sample languages (41/60). Moreover, a substantial portion of the languages with adverbs do not have adjectives (12/41). The languages that have adverbs but lack adjectives are genealogically unrelated and geographically distant. This shows that it is not necessary for a language to have adjectives in order for it to have adverbs, as earlier argued by Hengeveld (1992, 2013). More generally, I draw the conclusion that adverbs are conceptually no less basic than adjectives. The chapter also described other encoding strategies found in adv. Many languages (18/60) have adverb derivation or something that comes very close to it, although the base for derivation and the type of derivational markers and their functions vary remarkably. Fewer languages have adverbs formed with case-marking, but even these few languages show an areal pattern in being located primarily in central Eurasia. Fewer languages still have reduplication as an adverbializing strategy. Nine of the sample languages have ideophones that are adverbs. Also ideophonic adverbs show a clear areal

distribution, primarily in languages in Africa. Finally, the remaining adverbial encoding strategies were described, illustrating a number of different patterns.