11.20
First-Order
RC
Circuits
down to zero as frequency goes up. Thus a Series
RC Circuit with the output taken across the capacitor
is a first-order low-pass filter. It shows a tendency to remove high frequency components in the input.
Further, we observe from Fig. 11.5-3 that the waveshape of output voltage is considerably different
from that of input. This is inevitable in a filtering context. After all, some frequency components get
removed or attenuated considerably in a filtering process and therefore the output cannot but look
different compared to input! When the waveshape of output under steady-state in a circuit is different
from the waveshape of input, the circuit is said to have
distorted the signal. Thus,
distortion invariably
follows
filtering. When the change in waveshape is the desired outcome, we call it
filtering; when the
change in waveshape is the
undesired outcome we call it distortion.
This distortion of waveshape arises out of two reasons. Sinusoids at different frequencies meet with
different gains in the circuit and therefore the mix of amplitudes,
i.e., the relative ratio of amplitudes
of various sinusoids, will be different at output and input. In the example we considered, the ratio
was 1:0.33:0.2 at input and 1:0.147:0.057 at the output. Waveshape changes due to this change in
amplitude mix. Distortion arising out of this mechanism is called
amplitude distortion and it is due to
the gain response part of frequency response.
The second cause of distortion comes from phase response. Each sinusoid suffers a time delay
when it goes through the circuit – the time delay is measured between zero crossing of that sinusoid in
the input and in the output. Phase delay is equal to time delay multiplied by angular frequency. Thus
the 1 rad/s component in the previous example underwent a delay of 0.79 s, the 3 rad/s component
suffered a delay of 1.25 rad/ 3 rad/s
=
0.42 s and the 5 rad/s component was subjected to a delay of
1.79 rad/5 rad/s
=
0.36 s.
0.2
(a)
(b)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
–0.2
0.6
0.4
0.2
–0.2
–0.4
Fig. 11.5-4
Illustratingphasedistortionduetodispersion
All the three cross the time-axis simultaneously at the input. But at the output they do not cross the
time-axis simultaneously – the 5 rad/s crosses first followed by the 3 rad/s component and the 1 rad/s
component is the last one to cross the time-axis. Thus, they get
dispersed. This
dispersion results in
change in waveshape. Refer to Fig. 11.5-4. The three components in the input are shown in Fig. 11.5-4
(a) and the corresponding components in the output are shown in Fig. 11.5-4 (b). The dispersion in
zero-crossing instants is clearly brought out in Fig. 11.5-4 (b). The distortion resulting from dispersion
of components brought about by
unequal time delays suffered in going through the circuit is termed
as
phase distortion. Of course, in any distortion context these two – amplitude distortion and phase
distortion – are mixed up and cannot be separated out.
Phase distortion arises essentially due to phase response part of frequency response. If all the
sinusoids are delayed by
same time delay there will be no change in waveshape (assuming there is
FrequencyResponseofFirstOrder
RC
Circuits
11.21
no amplitude distortion). The entire input waveshape will get bodily shifted in time-axis by a definite
delay and will appear as output in that case. Therefore, either zero time delay for all frequencies or
constant time delay for all frequencies will prevent phase distortion. A constant time delay implies that
the
phase delay must be a linear function of
w
.
The conditions to be satisfied by a circuit such that there is no waveshape distortion
when a signal passes through it must be evident now – its frequency response must
haveagainthatisflatwith
w
andaphasewhichiseitherzeroorlinearon
w
,
i.e.,
ofthe
form
f
=
-
k
w
where
k
isarealnumber.
Obviously only a memoryless circuit can satisfy this. Hence a circuit which contains at least
one inductor or capacitor will cause waveshape distortion in general. Similarly, we conclude that a
memoryless
circuit cannot function as a filter; we will need inductors and capacitors for that.
We observe that, in the example we analysed in this section, the input contained three sinusoids of
1 rad/s, 3 rad/s and 5 rad/s and the output contained exactly three sinusoidal components with the
same frequencies as in the input. In short, the circuit did not change the frequency of sinusoids.
Neither did it generate a sinusoid with a frequency that was not there in the input. This, in fact, is
a property of any lumped linear time-invariant (LLTI) system. They can only scale, differentiate or
integrate signals. And these three mathematical operations cannot produce a sinusoid with a frequency
that is different from that of input.
Therefore, a single frequency sinusoid cannot suffer waveshape distortion in passing
throughalineartime-invariantcircuit.
However, a non-linear circuit can change the waveshape of a single frequency sinusoid. Apply
about 10mV of 1kHz sinusoidal voltage to a 741 Operational Amplifier
non-inverting pin after
grounding the inverting pin. The Operational Amplifier is in the open loop and its large gain results
in output getting saturated. We will observe a waveform that is almost a square wave at the output.
That is
non-linear distortion. The waveshape distortion we observed in the example in this stion was
not due to non-linearity. It occurred due to differential treatment experienced by various sinusoidal
components in a mixture of sinusoids when they went through the circuit. The distortion which occurs
due to frequency response of a linear circuit is termed as
linear distortion in order to distinguish this
kind of distortion from distortion due to non-linearity.
Amplitude Distortion and
Phase Distortion are
the two inseparable components of
Linear Distortion.
One should not be under the impression that the Series
RC Circuit can function only as a low-
pass filter. In fact, the kind of filter realised by a given circuit will strongly depend on where exactly
is the input applied and where exactly is the output taken.
A Series RC Circuit excited by a voltage
source at the input with output taken across the capacitor is a low-pass filter. The same circuit with the
same excitation but with the output taken across the resistor is a high-pass filter that passes the high
frequency sinusoids to the output and curtails the low frequency components including DC.
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: