2.2.2.4 National and International Identity
Carrington and Short (1995) found that British 8 and 9 year-olds indicated that the concept
of 'being British' primarily meant being born in Britain (65%), speaking the same language
as other British people (42%), having relatives in Britain (27%) or living in Britain (20%).
When Waldron and Pike (2006) asked Irish children to describe an Irish person from their
own perspective and from the perspective of someone from another country, they found
that the overwhelming focus was on aspects of culture including Gaelic games, music and
Irish language but that drinking and having the “craic” also featured strongly. Waldron and
Pike (2006) maintain that educators need to understand children’s ideas on national identity
if they are to help them construct an hospitable, critical and reflective citizenry. Due to the
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political, economic and social changes arising from European integration, existing national
identities are being supplemented by multi-faceted and layered identities including a
collective European identity (Papoulia-Tzelepi et al. 2005).
2.2.2.5 Racial Awareness and Racial Prejudice
By age four or five, children become aware of their own race and can discriminate between
different racial groups (Smith et al. 2003). When asked to select a black or white doll
during several racial awareness experiments, white children invariably chose the white doll
and black children under seven primarily also chose the white doll but beyond seven they
chose the black doll more often (Smith et al. 2003).
Aboud (1988) argues that young children do not grasp racial constancy and believe that a
person’s racial category can change if his or her appearance changes but Hirschfeld (1996)
showed that children do understand that race is determined at birth and cannot be changed
(Hirschfeld 1996 cited in Hirschfeld 2001).
Racism is a negative attitude towards other people based on incorrect beliefs and it is
formed at an early age (Cristol and Gimbert 2008). Aboud (1988) maintains that there are
clear stages in the development of prejudice. Children under four do not yet have ethnic
awareness and therefore prejudice does not arise. Between 4 to 7 years, children recognise
other ethnic groups as being different to their ingroup and tend to have negative attitudes
towards them. From 8 years and beyond, children tend to have mainly positive attitudes
towards both the ingroup and the outgroup.
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Baron and Banaji (2006) used an Implicit Association Test to measure implicit race
attitudes among American 6 year olds and 10 year olds, and found implicit pro-White/anti-
Black bias in both groups and explicit self-reported biased attitudes among the 6 year olds
but more balanced self-reported attitudes among the 10-year olds.
Katz and Zalk (1978, p.458) carried out a study on second and fifth grade white elementary
school children and found “that young children's racial attitudes are fairly malleable,
particularly on short-term retests, a finding that contrasts sharply with results obtained with
adults.” Bernstein et al (2000) showed that children’s attitudes could be changed if they
were exposed to different races and ethnicities, and provided with a suitable curriculum.
Newton (2005) carried out a short teaching programme on Africa in two schools and found
that children had a more positive attitude towards African people by the end of the study.
Perkins and Mebert (2005) noted that children taught with a multi-cultural curriculum
tended to have a more positive than negative view of people.
Television advertisements often use stereotypical images to communicate their messages in
the minimum time available and these images are readily acquired by children (Department
of Education and Science 1999c). Meadows and Murphy (2004) maintain that children
form a patronising picture of a Mexican person from watching Speedy Gonzales cartoons,
seeing Mexican males sleeping against a cactus and Mexican children only ever wearing
traditional dress.
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