Describing language
Position of the vocal cords for voiceless and voiced sounds (seen from above - the
Adam ’s apple at the front is at the top o f each diagram)
Note that vowels are always voiced.
A complete list of phonemic symbols is given in Appendix D on page 267.
Forms and meanings
Just as in English there is sometimes no readily discernible correspondence between sounds
and spelling, there are frequent instances, too, where the same language forms can be used
to
express different meanings, or where a meaning can be expressed by many different
forms.
One form, many meanings
The present continuous verb form (‘is/are doing’ - see page 70) can refer to both the present
(‘I’m not listening’) and the future (‘I’m seeing him tom orrow ’). It can be used to refer to a
tem porary uncompleted event (‘They are enjoying the weather’) or to a series o f completed
events (‘He’s always putting his foot in it’). The same basic form is being used to express a
num ber of different concepts of tim e and duration. The
same is true of, for example, the
present simple. ‘He goes to work at 7 every day’ to describe a habit, versus ‘Thierry Henry
scores!’ to describe something taking place now are just two of its many uses.
O ther verb
forms behave in the same way.
Words can also mean more than one thing, for example, ‘book’ (= something to read,
to reserve, a list of bets, etc), ‘beat’ (= to win, to hit, to mix, e.g. an egg, the ‘pulse’ of music/a
heart) a n d ‘can’ (= ability,
permission, probability - and a container made o f metal). Notice
that, in these examples, not only can the same form have many meanings, but it can also be
different parts of speech.
W ith so many available meanings for words and grammatical forms, it is the
context
the word occurs in which determines which of these meanings is being referred to. If
we say, ‘I beat him because I ran faster than he did’, ‘beat’ is
likely to mean won rather
than physically assaulted or mixed (though there is always the possibility of ambiguity, of
course). Likewise, the sentence ‘I’m talking to the president’ changes dramatically if we use
these different expressions: ‘at this very m inute’ or ‘tom orrow at noon’.
One meaning, many forms
A
meaning or concept can be expressed in many different ways. Consider, for example,
the concept of the future. Different forms can be used to express
the same basic concept
(though each form does have a slightly different meaning).
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Chapter 5
EXAMPLES
III see you tomorrow.
I’m going to see you tomorrow.
I’m seeing you tomorrow - that’s the arrangem ent, isn’t it?
I can get to you by about six o’clock.
I see you at six, and afterwards I have a meeting with John.
The choice of which way to express futurity depends on whether the speaker wants to talk
about
fixed arrangements, plans, schedules, offers, or just a simple concept of the future
with none of these overtones.
Word meaning can also be expressed in different ways. Even where words appear to have
the same meaning - to be synonyms - they are usually distinct from each other. For example,
we can describe an intelligent person by using a num ber of different words: ‘intelligent’,
‘bright’, ‘brainy’ ‘clever’, ‘sm art’, etc. But each of these
words has a different
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