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vowel  sounds (like /o:/ in ‘warm ’, /as/ in ‘cat’,  /o/ and /i:/ in ‘coffee’, etc) and  consonant



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vowel 
sounds (like /o:/ in ‘warm ’, /as/ in ‘cat’, 
/o/ and /i:/ in ‘coffee’, etc) and 
consonant 
sounds (like /m / in ‘warm ’, 
It/
in ‘trough’ and 
If/
in ‘rough’ and ‘trough’).
Vowel sounds can either be single (like 
/oil
and /i:/) or combinations of two or more 
sounds (diphthongs - like /ei/ in ‘late’, /au/ in ‘now’, /re/ in ‘real’, or triphthongs - like /au s/ 
in ‘p ower’).
Consonants can sometimes be joined together to make sounds like /tj/ in ‘child’ and 
‘church’, and M
3
/ in ‘judge’ (the sound is used twice) and ‘Iohn’.
Consonants can be either 
voiced 
or 
voiceless. 
Voiced consonants are those where we 
close the 
vocal cords 
in our throat (see page 63) and they vibrate as the air from the lungs 
passes between them. Consonants like 
Ibl, Id/,
/v/ and /g/are all voiced in this way, whereas 
when we say the consonants /p/, 
It/, IfI
and 
Ik/,
the vocal cords are left open and so there 
is no vibration, and therefore no voice. Thus, while, for example, we use exactly the same 
parts of the m outh to make the sounds 
Idl
and /t/, the first is voiced while the second is not. 
The same is true of the pairs 
Ibl
and /p/, /v/ and 
If/,
and 
Igl
and 
Ikl.
62


Describing language
Position of the vocal cords for voiceless and voiced sounds (seen from above - the
Adam ’s apple at the front is at the top o f each diagram)
Note that vowels are always voiced.
A complete list of phonemic symbols is given in Appendix D on page 267.
Forms and meanings
Just as in English there is sometimes no readily discernible correspondence between sounds 
and spelling, there are frequent instances, too, where the same language forms can be used 
to express different meanings, or where a meaning can be expressed by many different 
forms.
One form, many meanings
The present continuous verb form (‘is/are doing’ - see page 70) can refer to both the present 
(‘I’m not listening’) and the future (‘I’m seeing him tom orrow ’). It can be used to refer to a 
tem porary uncompleted event (‘They are enjoying the weather’) or to a series o f completed 
events (‘He’s always putting his foot in it’). The same basic form is being used to express a 
num ber of different concepts of tim e and duration. The same is true of, for example, the 
present simple. ‘He goes to work at 7 every day’ to describe a habit, versus ‘Thierry Henry 
scores!’ to describe something taking place now are just two of its many uses. O ther verb 
forms behave in the same way.
Words can also mean more than one thing, for example, ‘book’ (= something to read, 
to reserve, a list of bets, etc), ‘beat’ (= to win, to hit, to mix, e.g. an egg, the ‘pulse’ of music/a 
heart) a n d ‘can’ (= ability, permission, probability - and a container made o f metal). Notice 
that, in these examples, not only can the same form have many meanings, but it can also be 
different parts of speech.
W ith so many available meanings for words and grammatical forms, it is the 
context
the word occurs in which determines which of these meanings is being referred to. If 
we say, ‘I beat him because I ran faster than he did’, ‘beat’ is likely to mean won rather 
than physically assaulted or mixed (though there is always the possibility of ambiguity, of 
course). Likewise, the sentence ‘I’m talking to the president’ changes dramatically if we use 
these different expressions: ‘at this very m inute’ or ‘tom orrow at noon’.
One meaning, many forms
A
meaning or concept can be expressed in many different ways. Consider, for example, 
the concept of the future. Different forms can be used to express the same basic concept 
(though each form does have a slightly different meaning).
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Chapter 5
EXAMPLES
III see you tomorrow.
I’m going to see you tomorrow.
I’m seeing you tomorrow - that’s the arrangem ent, isn’t it?
I can get to you by about six o’clock.
I see you at six, and afterwards I have a meeting with John.
The choice of which way to express futurity depends on whether the speaker wants to talk 
about fixed arrangements, plans, schedules, offers, or just a simple concept of the future 
with none of these overtones.
Word meaning can also be expressed in different ways. Even where words appear to have 
the same meaning - to be synonyms - they are usually distinct from each other. For example, 
we can describe an intelligent person by using a num ber of different words: ‘intelligent’, 
‘bright’, ‘brainy’ ‘clever’, ‘sm art’, etc. But each of these words has a different 

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