Theory of Translation 1 Introduction

2.13.3.4 Translation: Interlingual Communication 
Translation is obviously an intercultural communication. The translator, who searches 
for equivalence, encounters numberless problems posed by the cultures of both the 
languages concerned, i.e. the SL and the TL. Eugene Nida examines the problems in 
translation which are essentially problems of equivalence. These problems may be 
treated under (1) ecology (2) material culture (3) social culture (4) religious culture 
(5) linguistic culture (qtd. in Kher, 72).
Various problems in translation are related with the differences between languages 
and cultures. Do the languages differ partially, reflecting some common traits, or 
whether the differences are arbitrary, differing in totality, reflecting completely 
different people living in different intellectual world? These questions focus on the 
possibility of translation equivalence and the problems involved in the process. 
There are some scholars who hold that translation is impossible. Edward Sapir, a 
significant ethnolinguist, is of the view that the similarities in languages are not 
enough “to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which 
different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different 
labels attached” (Culture, Language and Personality, 59). Even then, the study of 
‘Language Universals’ has shown that although languages differ from each other, they 

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can be grouped into phonological, morphological and syntactic types. (The issue 
‘Language Universals’ has been discussed above in 2.4) The difference of languages 
occurs only in the combination of components and not in individual components. A. 
L. Kroeber refutes the theory of uniqueness of languages and puts forth the principle 
of ‘psychic unity’ (qtd. in Eckman, 160). Also, Lambert argues that “the similarities 
among ethnic groups are much more prominent than differences” (qtd. in Eckman, 
160). Therefore, the preachings of the Holy Bible are propagated in every nook and 
corner of the world through cross-cultural communication, i.e. translation. 
Everybody knows that human languages are not identical. Even the languages in the 
same family differ in any one or all the three concepts of identities: “Conceptual 
identity, referential identity and the identity based on universals of language” (Juan 
Sager, 130). The difference in extralinguistic context results in linguistic differences. 
When the target culture lacks a given element (object, concept, social institution, 
pattern of behaviour, etc.), the target language also normally lacks an expression for 
it. In such a case, Evir comments that “the translator has to find the equivalent 
expression in the target language to convey the missing element to the speakers of the 
language” (p. 36). 
Problems of translation decrease or increase in proportion to the cultural distance 
between the SL and the TL. In this regard, H. C. Trivedi aptly comments: 
If the cultural structure in the background of the SL is remote from the cultural 
structure which is the background of TL, translation from one to other presents 
a number of difficulties (qtd. in Spitzbardt, 134). 
For instance, difficulties of translation arise between languages that are associated 
with different cultures and consequently have different names for different customs 
(e.g. birthday party) objects, institutions (e.g. college) etc. If the readymade form for a 
concept or object is not available in a language, there are two alternatives: (1) The 
new form is directly imported from the language, e.g. ‘
±ÉÉìVÉ
’ and ‘ghee’ in Marathi and 
English respectively. (2) The resources of the language are used to create the new 
form, which is called calque. For example, ‘
Ê´ÉtÉ{ÉÒ`ö
’
in Marathi for ‘University’ in 
English or ‘leaf-plates/leaf-cup’ in English for the Marathi ‘
{ÉjÉɴɳýÒ/pùÉähÉ
’
are the 
calques. 

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To sum up, a good deal of culture is transmitted verbally. Linguistic expressions 
differ as cultures differ. A distinctive system of beliefs is created through the thought 
process which is affected by language. Hence, translations play a crucial role as it is a 
confrontation of not only two languages but two cultures. It leads to cross-cultural 
communication through a compromise. The belief system undergoes a liberalizing 
process of cultural assimilation. In this process, the contour of the cultural identity is 
lost through mutual tolerance and giving way for the new value system of universal 
brotherhood. In other words, translation is a humanizing process that lays the 
foundation for the unity of mankind.