Child Psychology and Psychiatry


particular disorders; a deficit in rapid naming is



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066 Child Psychology and Psychiatry


particular disorders; a deficit in rapid naming is
specific to children with dyslexia, but is not evident
in most children with language impairment.
PATTERNS OF IMPAIRMENT FROM
PRESCHOOL TO ADOLESCENCE
It has been known for many years that dyslexia
runs in families, and recent studies suggest there
Table 22.1
Risk factors for dyslexia in the
preschool and early school years.
Stage of
Risk factors
development
for dyslexia
Birth
Affected family member
Preschool
Late talker
Speech difficulties
Slow to learn colours and letters
School entry
Poor knowledge of letters
Poor rhyming or phoneme skills
Expressive language difficulties
is a 40% risk of dyslexia developing in first-degree
relatives [9]. While dyslexia is most usually diag-
nosed in middle childhood it is clear from prospec-
tive longitudinal studies that its effects are evident
as early as 3 years of age and persist through
adolescence into adulthood.
Although there are different pathways to liter-
acy development, studies of children at familial risk
of dyslexia typically show that children who go on
to develop reading problems experience delayed
language development in the preschool years [10].
These subtle language problems may persist into
the school years when they are associated with
phonological impairments at the time of reading
instruction. In one such study, language-delayed
preschoolers experienced persisting literacy dif-
ficulties into early adolescence, when they also
tended to present with low self-esteem in relation
to their academic skills, avoidance of reading, and
attentional and emotional difficulties [2]. Impor-
tantly, children from ‘at-risk’ families who were
reading within the normal range at the age of 8
years, went on to experience difficulties in spelling
and reading fluency at the age of 12, thus showing
a ‘broader phenotype’ of dyslexia. These findings
indicate that dyslexia is a dimensional disorder
and that the family risk of dyslexia is continu-
ous. Children from ‘at-risk’ families who were not
reading impaired in the early years tended to have
relatively good oral language skills. It seems that
their good semantic knowledge enabled them to
develop compensatory strategies; for instance, they
were able to draw on context cues available in text
to aid and support reading processes.
136



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