Child Psychology and Psychiatry



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066 Child Psychology and Psychiatry

Literacy disorders
word decoding, but are still likely to have problems
with reading fluency and spelling [6].
In contrast to children with dyslexia, poor com-
prehenders perform well on tests of phonological
skills. They do, however, experience problems
with a wide range of language-related tasks that
assess oral language (vocabulary, grammar and
oral expression), higher level language skills
(including narrative and use of figurative lan-
guage), metacognitive processes (integration and
inference making, knowledge of story conventions
and structures) and executive processes (verbal
working memory, suppression and inhibition).
Nation
et al
. [7] carried out a longitudinal study
of poor reading comprehenders from the ages of 5
to 8 years; the children assessed as having reading
comprehension difficulties at age 8 showed oral
language problems that were present at school
entry 3 years earlier. Such findings suggest that
language problems are causally related to later
reading comprehension difficulties.
Like most developmental disorders, dyslexia
and reading comprehension difficulties occur
along a continuum of severity. In dyslexia, the
severity of the child’s phonological deficit will
influence the extent of their reading and spelling
difficulties, and very likely also their response to
remedial intervention. However, other cognitive
factors also play a role. Children with dyslexia who
have comorbid language impairment will present
with problems in reading comprehension as well
as word recognition. Pennington and Bishop [8]
have suggested it is important to consider the
number and type of ‘risk’ factors present in a
child with a reading problem (these could be
genetic or environmental). In considering the
comorbidity of dyslexia, language impairment
and speech sound disorders, they conclude that
there are some risk factors that are general to all
three disorders, especially difficulties in acquiring
phoneme awareness (see Table 22.1). However,
there are also risk factors that are specific to
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