participants’ definition of “each other’s” rights and obligation’ (1971,
p. 294). Second is
metaphorical code
switching: People may switch varieties
within a single situation just to convey a different view of that situation and
their relationship. In such cases, the language switch ‘relates to particular
kinds of topics or subject matters’ and is used ‘in the enactment of two
or more different relationships among the same set of individuals’
(1971, p. 295).
(From Schiffrin,
2003
)
Square Brackets –
Notice how, in the first example, the word
teachers
appears in square brackets. This means it has been added by author
Carol Taylor, who is quoting the source. Why has she added it? Because had
she not done so, the subject of the sentence (i.e. teachers) might not be
evident to the reader due to the fact that the quotation has been removed
from its original context.
Ellipses (
. . .
)
– In the second example, the three dots that appear in line three
are used to tell the reader that a part of the original text that’s being quoted
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has been omitted (elided) by author Deborah Schiffrin. If you ever decide to
omit part of a quotation, you should always signal it in this way, otherwise
you’re misrepresenting the original source.
Whenever you quote a source, be sure to provide the name of its author,
its year of publication and the page number (or page range, if it spans two
pages or more) from which the quotation has been taken. If it’s a page
range, it will look something like this: (2010, pp. 178–179). Sometimes the
author’s name and the year of publication may be separated from the page
number (as in the first of our two examples), and sometimes the author’s
name will be separated from the year of publication and page number (as in
our second example). Obviously, if it’s clear who the author of the quota-
tion is, then it’s not necessary to repeat their name with the year of
publication and/or the page number. However, a writer will sometimes
include a quotation without having previously introduced the author of
that quotation. In this case, all the relevant information should be included
in the bracketed reference, as in the following example:
The case of globally aphasic Brother John, a Catholic monk, has been
cited as offering ‘striking support
. . .
for the retention of ideation or thought
processes in the absence of language, and for the separability of linguistic
and cognitive competence’ (Dingwall
1998
, p. 72).
8.6
In-text referencing: citing without quoting
There will be many occasions when you’ll want to refer to the work of other
scholars without necessarily wishing to quote them. This will be the case when
you paraphrase their ideas or when you simply wish to indicate to the reader
that you’re aware of their work and how it relates to the ideas about which
you’re writing. In either case, you must once again ensure that you provide
accurate in-text references to their work, as in the following examples:
1. In a two-year investigation of 13 Canadian French-English infant
bilinguals with a commencing average age of 34 months, Doyle et al. (1978)
also came to the conclusion that there is no evidence that the bilingual
child’s languages must be separated by person or location, at least as far as
optimal vocabulary growth is concerned.
(From Saunders,
1988
)
2. The notion of
man
as the unmarked category and
woman
as the
marked category is also reflected in pairs of words that are distinguished
by gender. As Graddol and Swann (1989) mention, the masculine terms
dog
and
lion
in pairs are considered the ‘neutral’ terms whereas the feminine
counterparts,
bitch
and
lioness
are semantically marked
. . .
However,
using suffixes to mark gender seems to be declining (Graddol & Swann,
1989; Poynton, 1989).
(From Freeman and McElhinny,
2003
)
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3. Analyses of metaphor provide a powerful means of understanding how
language use shapes experience (see Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, for further
discussion). Martin (1987), for example, moves beyond an analysis of the
lexicon to explore how metaphors about women’s experiences can reflect
gender-based ideologies.
(From Freeman and McElhinny,
2003
)
4. The Cape Education Commission of 1892 collected evidence of the
‘origin of bilingualism’ in the early part of the century (Rose & Tunmer,
1975: 150–153) where provision was made for children to be taught in
English or Dutch or both in primary school. The British did, however,
attempt to force the English-only in secondary school and this generated
resistance and exacerbated a distrust of the English among the Dutch,
especially after 1873 (ibid.: 154).
(From Heugh,
2003
)
5. At no point did PANSALB engage in an evaluation of related discussions
elsewhere (for example in Peru and Nicaragua) about the vexed issue of
the authenticity in linguistic description or new corpus planning activities
(e.g. Hornberger & King 1998, Freeland 2002, 2003). Neither did it
interrogate the process of corpus planning or the critique that corpus
planning by definition, is exclusionary and often defeating of its explicit
purpose (Hornberger & King op.cit.).
(From Heugh,
2003
)
6. Within this development of what has been coined the cultural turn
(cf. Lefevere and Bassnett 1990), the systemic reflection on the comparison
of target and source texts more or less has been pushed to the background.
(From Coster,
2002
)
7. Young, as early as 1978, warned of the consequences of teachers
inadequately proficient in English.
(Young 1978, pp. 188–189).
(From Heugh
1999
, p. 303)
8. Although it retained many of the fundamental notions of ‘classical’
transformational grammar, Principles and Parameters Theory (PPT) differed
from earlier versions of the theory in several ways (Chomsky, 1981, 1986b;
Haegeman, 1991; Napoli, 1993; Cook & Newson, 1996).
(From Ratner, Gleason and Narasimhan
1998
, p. 24)
A heads-up on abbreviations in referencing
et al
. – In the first of the above examples, reference is made to ‘Doyle et al.’
‘et al.’ means ‘and others’ and indicates that Doyle was one of a number
of authors of the work to which Saunders is referring. ‘Et al.’ is used when
the number of authors is more than two. The first time you mention a work
by multiple authors, use all of their names; however, use ‘et al.’ on all
subsequent occasions (see also
section 9.17
: What about Latin words and
abbreviations?).
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‘and’ vs. ‘&’
– In the examples above, you will notice that both ‘and’
and ‘&’ have been used. A frequently adopted convention states that ‘and’
is used when the authors’ names are used as part of the sentence (e.g.
‘As Graddol and Swann (1989) mention
. . .
’) whereas ‘&’ is used when
the authors’ names are used in the bracketed citation (e.g. ‘However, using
suffixes to mark gender seems to be declining (Graddol & Swann, 1989;
Poynton, 1989)’).
ibid
. and
op. cit
. – In examples 4 and 5, ‘ibid.’ and ‘op. cit.’ are used
respectively. These Latin abbreviations are both used to refer to a work that
has already been mentioned previously and they save the writer having to
repeat the full reference multiple times. This also makes it less tiresome for
the reader. As a writer, however, you must make it obvious to which
previous reference it refers. It would, for example, be unhelpful to refer
back to a reference appearing a few pages earlier or in a previous chapter!
‘Op. cit.’ is used instead of ‘ibid.’ to cite a reference that does not immedi-
ately follow an earlier reference to the same source and/or is separated
from it by references to other sources.
cf. –
In example 6, the Latin abbreviation ‘cf.’ precedes the reference to
Lefevere and Bassnett. ‘Cf.’ means ‘compare’ – or, perhaps more helpfully,
‘compare the passage I’ve just discussed with another one; namely that of
Lefevere and Bassnett’. Although it’s not exactly the same, it’s meaning is
similar to ‘see also’.
pp
. – Note the use of ‘pp.’ in example 7, to indicate the page range that
the quotation spans (188–189).
1986b
– In the final example, you will notice that Ratner, Gleason
and Narasimhan have used the letter ‘b’ after the reference year. Writers
do this when they cite two or more works published by the same author
in the same year and wish to distinguish between them for the benefit of
the reader. The fact that Ratner et al. use the letter ‘b’ tells us that they’ve
already made reference to another Chomsky work elsewhere which they
will have cited as ‘Chomsky, 1986a’. Were they to use a third Chomsky
work also published in 1986, that would have to be cited as ‘Chomsky,
1986c’. As we’ll see, this ‘coding’ is also reflected in the bibliography.
Paraphrasing from a secondary source
You will occasionally face a situation where a source you wish to refer to is
unavailable and, consequently, you have to refer to someone else’s citation
of that source. When you do this, you’re said to be using a ‘secondary
source’ – the source is one step removed from the original. Although using
secondary sources is quite common in news reporting, where it can some-
times be difficult to ‘get to’ a primary source (particularly if it’s somebody
who doesn’t wish to face the press), doing so in academic writing is
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strongly discouraged and primary sources should always be used if at all
possible. If you absolutely have to use a secondary source then your citation
should look like this:
Pollitt and Murray (cited in Seyek 2009) claim that one useful approach
to creating a more natural scale via which to judge students’ performance
in oral tests of language proficiency is to combine Kelly’s ‘Repertory
Grid’ procedure and Thurstone’s ‘Method of Paired Comparisons’.
or
One useful approach to creating a more natural scale via which to judge
students’ performance in oral tests of language proficiency is to combine
Kelly’s ‘Repertory Grid’ procedure and Thurstone’s ‘Method of Paired
Comparisons’ (Pollitt & Murray, cited in Seyek 2009).
Finally, if your secondary source has more than two authors, remember
to use ‘et al.’ (see above):
Hinckelstein et al. (cited in Taylor & Gravelle 2006) argue that
. . .
or
. . .
(Hinckelstein et al., cited in Taylor & Gravelle 2006).
Citing electronic sources
When it comes to citing electronic sources in the main body of your text,
the rules are essentially the same as those for in-print (hard copy) sources;
that is, you’re required to provide the author’s name, the year of publica-
tion, and the page number(s) where relevant. This is the case whether the
source is a journal article from an electronic database, an internet website, an
e-book, an internet blog/forum, electronic conference proceedings or an email
communication. However, if you wish to refer to a general resource, service
or homepage, you need to include the URL (web address) in the body of your
text. In
all
cases, the url will need to be included for all in-text references in
the bibliographic listing (see
section 8.7
). Look at these examples:
Flische (2004) argues that there is no pragmatics equivalent to a phonological
core that helps ensure mutual intelligibility and is ‘cross-culturally
democratic’ in the way Jenkins (2000) suggests.
Seven of the ten subjects interviewed stated that their opinions had been
influenced in part by ideas they had been exposed to via the Internet-based
Phonological Issues
forum (
www.phonological_issues_debated.uniund.org
).
The Linguistics Society of America (
www.lsadc.org/
) is one such resource.
If you wish to cite a personal (email) communication, cite the initials
and surname of the communicator and give as exact a date as possible:
e.g. According to J. L. Souraya, (personal communication, December 5,
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2008)
. . .
And remember, because emails do not provide recoverable data,
they are not included in the bibliography.
8.7.
The bibliography: what is it and how should I format it?
A bibliography is a complete list of works that you have cited in your
writing, whether in the main body of the text or as footnotes. It should
appear at the end of your work and its primary purpose is to enable your
reader to locate any of the references you’ve cited in the main body of your
text by providing full details of their publication.
Before looking at the detail of how to format a Harvard-APA style
bibliography, here are a few general principles you need to bear in mind
when creating your bibliography.
List all and only those items you’ve cited in your text and read. Do not
include sources you’ve included as ‘cited in’ other sources (see ‘Paraphrasing
from a secondary source’, above).
Include the author’s name but do
not
include their title (e.g. ‘Professor’).
List references alphabetically according to authors’ surnames. Where there
are multiple authors, keep the names in the same order as they appear on
the work being cited. Put initials after rather than before surnames.
Where you have cited multiple works by the same author some of which
are sole-authored, some joint-authored and some multiple-authored, the
sole-authored works should be listed first, joint-authored second, and
multiple-authored last. However, this only applies if the same author’s
name appears first (i.e. they are first author) in each of these three cases.
In the case of a work that you’ve cited and which appeared in an edited
volume, be sure to list the author of the work cited and
not
the editor(s)
of the volume.
Include the year of publication of the work you’ve cited.
Include the title of the work you’ve cited.
Cite the source of the work. If it’s an article or review in a journal, provide
the journal’s name, volume and issue number, along with inclusive page
numbers of the article. If the work is a book, give the city of publication
and the name of the publisher. If the work is a chapter in an edited volume,
provide the name(s) of the editor of the volume, the title of the volume, the
city of publication, the name of the publisher, and the inclusive page
numbers for the chapter.
For Internet sites, include the author’s name(s), the date of publication, the
title of the page, the URL (web address), and the date that you accessed
the site.
Check the appropriate bibliographic formatting conventions, including
punctuation. These are often subtle and easy to miss.
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The following table lists the various different kinds of sources you’re most
likely draw on in your writing and provides examples of how to format
these according to the Harvard-APA style of referencing.
Harvard-APA bibliographic referencing conventions
Sole-authored book
McLaughlin, B. (1985).
Second language acquisition in
childhood: Vol. 2. School-age children
. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Joint-authored book
Bassnett, S., & Lefevere, A. (1998).
Constructing cultures.
Essays on literary translation
. Clevedon: Multilingual
Matters.
Multiple-authored
book (3 or more
authors)
Vasquez, O. A., Pease-Alvarez, L., & Shannon,
S. M. (1994).
Pushing boundaries: Language and
culture in a Mexicano community
. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Edited book
Singler, J. V. (Ed.). (1990).
Pidgin and creole tense-mood-
aspect systems
. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John
Benjamins.
Lundquist, L., & Jarvella, R. J. (Eds.). (2000).
Language,
text, and knowledge: Mental models of expert
communication
. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
More than one publication
by the same author in
the same year
Cutler, A. (1980a). Syllable omission errors and
isochrony. In H. W. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.),
Temporal variables in speech
(pp. 183–290).
The Hague: Mouton.
Cutler, A. (1980b). Errors of stress and intonation.
In V. A. Fromkin (Ed.),
Errors in linguistic performance:
Slips of the tongue, ear, pen, and hand
(pp. 67–80).
New York: Academic Press.
Institution, organisation
or association as author
University of Western Australia. (2005).
Academic
conduct: Guidelines for faculties and other teaching and
supervision sections at UWA: Ethical scholarship,
academic literacy and academic misconduct
. UWA
Handbook. Perth: University of Western Australia
Chapter of an edited book
Shibamoto, J. (1987). The womanly woman:
Manipulation of stereotypical and nonstereotypical
features of Japanese female speech. In S. Philips,
S. Steele, & C. Tanz (Eds.),
Language gender and sex
in comparative perspective
(pp. 26–49). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
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Chapter of a non-edited
book
Stephenson, D. W. (2009). The problem with apostrophes.
In
English as living language
(pp. 123–152). London:
Hadleigh Press.
Journal article
MacKay, D. (1979). Lexical insertion, inflection, and
derivation: Creative processes in word production.
Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 8
, 477–498.
Zuengler, J., & Bent, B. (1991). Relative knowledge of
content domain: An influence on native–non-native
conversations.
Applied Linguistics
,
12
(4), 397–415.
Journal article (in press)
Murray, N. (in press). Pragmatics, awareness-raising,
and the Cooperative Principle.
ELT Journal
.
Foreign-language journal
article
Bally, C. (1922). Copule ze´ro et faits connexe’s [Zero copula
and related issues].
Bulletin de la Socie´te´ de Linguistique
de Paris
,
23
, 1–6.
Abstract
Lee, J. H. (2010). A subject–object asymmetry in the
comprehension of
wh
-questions by Korean learners of
English [abstract].
Applied Linguistics
,
31
(1), 136–155.
An anonymous work
Anonymous. (1989, 17 February). The literacy problem
in schools.
The Daily Herald
, p. 14.
A work with a foreign title
Alonso, M. (1968).
Grama´tica del espan˜ol contempora´neo
[A grammar of contemporary Spanish]. Madrid:
Guadarrama.
Ibragimov, G.X. [
Г
.
Х
.
Ибрагимов
]. (1990).
Цахурский
язык
[The Tsakhur language]. Moscow: Nauka.
A translated work
Walter, H. (1994).
French inside out: The worldwide
development of the French language in the past, present
and the future
(P. Fawcett, Trans.). London: Routledge.
(Original work published 1988).
Second, further or revised
editions
Crystal, D. (1987).
Child language, learning and
linguistics: an overview for the teaching and therapeutic
professions
. (2nd ed.). London: Arnold.
Date of publication
unknown
Patrie, J. (n.d.).
Language attrition in Japanese returnee
students
. Osaka: Beythien Press.
Conference proceedings
Lakoff, R. (1977). What you can do with words:
Politeness, pragmatics and performatives. In A. Rogers,
B. Wall, & J. Murphy (Eds.),
Proceedings of the Texas
conference on performance, presuppositions, and
implicatures
(pp. 79–105). Arlington, VA: Center for
Applied Linguistics.
Unpublished manuscript
submitted for publication
Khalid, F. (2000).
The Arabic tense system
. Manuscript
submitted for publication.
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Unpublished manuscript
not submitted for
publication
Nmebo, K. (1994).
Dying languages of sub-Saharan
Africa
. Unpublished manuscript.
Published dissertation
or thesis
Murata, T. (1999).
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