particularly
factors
variables
found, noticed, recognised
identified
got rid of
eliminated
important
significant
long
extensive, extended
looked at/into
examined, investigated
numbers
figures, statistics, data
often
frequently
people
subjects (as in a study)
relationship
correlation
saw, noticed
observed
saw, found
discovered
seems
appears
OK
the best of the lot
all right
honestly
nice
cute (as in ‘a cute idea’)
kind of/almost
awesome
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shows
illustrates, indicates, demonstrates
so
therefore, consequently
very
highly, considerably, exceptionally
give
provide
* Be careful: the words in the right column may not always serve as
synonyms for those in the left column. Nor are they necessarily always
more desirable.
9.8
Shortened forms
Shortened forms refer to words that contain apostrophes but which can
instead be written out in full without apostrophes. They include:
Shortened form
Full form
it’s
it is
they’re
they are
won’t/wouldn’t
will not/would not
can’t/ couldn’t
cannot/could not
shouldn’t
should not
mustn’t
must not
hasn’t/haven’t/hadn’t
has not/have not/had not
wasn’t/weren’t
was not/were not
I’ll/he’ll/she’ll/we’ll/they’ll
I will/he will/she will/we will/they will
there’s
there is
As we noted in
Chapter 2
, shortened forms are generally considered unaccept-
able in academic writing because they too are associated with casual forms
of writing. Once again though, within the study of language and linguistics,
you may find yourself using shortened forms when faithfully recording spoken
or written data in the precise way it was originally produced. Obviously, in
this particular context it’s acceptable.
It’s important to remember that not all words that include an apostrophe
are shortened forms – for example, when the apostrophe is used to indicate
possession (see
section 2.6
), as in the following examples:
The researcher’s primary tool is
. . .
The linguist’s main concern is with
. . .
Elsa’s pronunciation of this particular dipthong consistently exhibited
. . .
Pienemann’s 1983 study is notable in that
. . .
In these instances, the apostrophe is not only acceptable but necessary.
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Finally, shortened forms can also include non-conventional spellings
which reflect shortened spoken forms of words such as
gonna
,
wanna
,
cos
and
thinkin’
. Such spellings are considered unacceptable in academic
writing and you can be certain that your lecturers will not approve of them!
9.9
Using humour
The use of humour in written work is a dangerous thing and I generally
advise strongly against it. Academic work is by its very nature a serious
business and, while there may be a rare opportunity to inject a little humour
into your writing, attempts to do so can easily backfire and end up making
you look naive and immature. The ability to ‘pull off’ humour in your
writing requires the ability to know when it’s appropriate and to adopt a
tone and sophistication that will go some way to ensuring that it’s well
received by your reader. Undergraduates rarely have this ability and are
therefore well advised to steer clear of humour and any attempts to adopt
a ‘jokey’ tone in their writing.
9.10
Formatting your work – some dos and don’ts
(see also
section 6.4
)
First impressions are always important, even in academic work, and by
following a number of simple rules you can give your written work a
polished and professional feel.
Do
use headings and sub-headings to indicate the status of sections and
make the organisation of your work more transparent and the structure
easier to follow.
Do
justify your text so that all the printed lines in a paragraph (except the
final line) are of the same length.
Do
ensure you leave adequate margins (at least 2–3 cms) on either side
of the page. This improves the look of your work and allows your lecturers
to write feedback in the margins, should they wish to do so.
Do
leave a free line before a section heading or sub-heading.
Do
be consistent in your use of font size. Try to stick with one font and
one font size (normally 12) as far as possible, except for headings, where
you may wish to increase the font size to 14, while keeping it at 12 for
sub-headings.
Do
bold your title and headings. You may also wish to bold some
sub-headings depending on how you choose to tier your headings
(see
section 6.4
: Headings – sections and sub-sections, titles and sub-titles).
Do
number your pages and figures.
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Don’t
use casual fonts. Fancy fonts
such as this one
feel too informal and
playful and you are best off sticking to a more traditional font such as
Times New Roman or Arial.
Don’t
use long or ornate titles and headings. Keep them crisp and ensure that
they capture the main focus of the essay or section. If possible, try and keep
them to a maximum of twelve words for titles and eight words for headings.
Don’t
use multiple colours, except where absolutely necessary. As with
fancy fonts, a kaleidoscopic piece of work risks making your work feel less
serious and academic, even childish. Try to stick with black and grey scales.
Where you find you do need to use other colours – for example in pie charts
or other types of charts and graphs where it can be necessary to differentiate
between multiple segments, bars or lines – try to use subdued colours rather
than colours that require your reader to wear sunglasses!
9.11
Cliche´s
Cliche´s are expressions which are overused and therefore tend to feel tired
and lacking in creativity. As such, it’s best to avoid them where possible,
even though it can sometimes be difficult to think of suitable alternatives.
All of the cliche´s listed below have appeared at some time or other in my
own students’ work:
Same common cliche´s to avoid
at loggerheads
at the end of the day
at this point in time
bone of contention
take the bull by the horns
a doubting Thomas
dyed in the wool
it goes without saying
hidden agenda
hit the nail on the head
in the same boat
jump on the bandwagon
the jury is still out
know the score
labour of love
last but not least
leaps and bounds
leave no stone unturned
movers and shakers
needless to say
old meets new
only game in town
out on a limb
a red herring
see their way clear
stick out like a sore thumb
the bottom line
tried and tested
very real concern
wakeup call
TRY IT OUT!
#17
Rewrite each of the sentences below without using the underlined
cliche´s.
1. Widdowson, Nunan and Wilson were three key
movers and shakers
of the communicative movement in the 1970s and 80s.
Rewrite
:____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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9.12
Dealing with jargon
Jargon is the terminology associated with a particular academic, profes-
sional or other area of activity – in our case language and linguistics.
In fact, ours is a field that has become rather notorious for what many
regard as its excessive use of jargon, and acronyms in particular (FLA, SLA,
TESOL, EAL, ESP, NESB, PELA, IELTS, etc.). Paolo Cordone, in speaking
of the use of jargon in professional or work contexts, says this:
Jargon, most commonly represented by acronyms and technical terms can,
in fact, be found in virtually any industry and can seem obscure to outsiders
who are not familiar with conventions and peculiarities of that business
[in our case, language and linguistics]. However, becoming familiar with
jargon is a normal process when entering a profession and it is often only a
matter of time before the nuances are mastered. It is a necessity to be able to
communicate effectively with colleagues and this represents a great
incentive to learning it.
However, the role of jargon as a useful linguistic element coexists with
jargon as a tool for defining social relations incorporating roles of authority
and submission. This happens particularly within the private sector, where
unnecessary wordiness and sentence complexity are employed to prove
superiority and to influence the ‘lower ranks’, and in the public sector,
where the extreme use of jargon can often be described as writing to
impress, rather than writing to inform.
(From Cordone, n.d.)
In other words, when writing in a specialised field such as linguistics it
is sometimes necessary to use jargon, and it may often be assumed that
2. Research around a natural order of acquisition of grammatical
morphemes progressed by
leaps and bounds
in the mid-1980s.
Rewrite
:____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. Publishers of language-teaching materials – and particularly
English language-teaching materials – were quick to
jump on the
Communicative Language Teaching
bandwagon
in the 1980s and 90s.
Rewrite
:____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4. Traditionalist grammarians, who see themselves as gatekeepers of the
English language, have always been
at loggerheads
with scholars and
academics who see language evolution and change as inevitable and
not subject to rigid rules and standards.
Rewrite
:____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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your reader will understand it, especially if it’s your tutor! However, do
no overuse it so that it obscures meaning or your lack of understanding
and clutters your text, making it dense and hard work to read. As a
rule, keep it to a minimum. It’s generally best to use straightforward
language that doesn’t assume too much specialised knowledge on the
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