Rater focus
Speech
delivery
Naturalness
Discourse
competence
Sociolinguistic
competence
Grammatical
competence
Stylistic devices
Fluent
Appropriacy of
language used
Hesitant/
staccato
Vocabulary
grammar
comprehension
pronunciation
Content-focused
elaboration/creativity/
parenthetical statements
idiomatic expressions
Form-focused
set, ‘textbook’ phrases
rehearsed/stilted speech
– 1
– 5
– 3/4 –
Defining sections of the proficiency scale
Figure 6.1
(Adapted from Pollitt and Murray,
1996
)
Writing the body of your essay
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TOEFL
LC1
Meaning
LC2
Conv.
LC3
Talks
LC TEST
SWE TEST
SWE1
SWE2
VRC1
VRC2
VRC TEST
P1
P2 P3 P4 P5
TOEFL structure
Figure 6.2
(Adapted from Brown and Ross,
1996
)
By numbering your figures in this way, when you make reference to them in
your text your reader is left in no doubt as to which figure you are referring.
As you write the body of your essay, refer regularly to your plan.
By doing so, you’ll stay on the straight and narrow and will not be tempted
to digress, ramble and produce sections of work that are irrelevant and are
not tightly knit with the rest of your text.
Examples
When writing about languages and linguistics you will almost inevitably
want to cite examples of language structure or language use (see also
section 9.16 for a discussion of formatting conventions). When presenting
these examples it’s good practice to use a hanging indent, which looks
much neater. A hanging indent is where all subsequent lines align with the
first line. Compare the following:
(1) Could you please lend me your pen?
I don’t appear to have my pen on me.
√
(2) Could you please lend me your pen?
I don’t appear to have my pen on me.
X
Notice how the second line of the example in the correct version aligns
exactly with where the first line of the
actual
example begins, rather than
with the
number
of the example.
Having completed the body of your essay, next you’ll need to think about
your conclusion and the question of whether or not it would benefit from being
preceded by a summary. These and related issues are the focus of
chapter 7
.
Chapter 6
Key points checklist
The body of your essay is everything that appears between the introduction
and the conclusion. It should:
typically account for around 70–80 per cent of the entire essay, although this
can vary;
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consist of a series of main ideas and more detailed supporting ideas that
together form the core of your discussion and demonstrate a coherent
argument structure;
be well laid out and presented and include: sections and sub-sections/titles
and sub-titles, where necessary; a systematic numbering/lettering system for
headings; correct line spacing; adequate margins; footnotes, if appropriate;
page numbers, figures, where necessary and where they serve to elucidate
ideas; and examples to illustrate points in your discussion.
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CHAPTER
7
Writing summaries and conclusions
‘I’ve never really understood the difference between a summary and a conclusion.
Conclusions are kind of like introductions for me: I’m never sure what to write, and
it usually feels like I’m just repeating what I’ve already said. So what’s the point?’
What’s covered in this chapter:
What’s a summary and how’s it different from a conclusion?
Are summaries always needed?
Where should I include a summary?
Summaries: handy language
What exactly should I be doing in a conclusion?
Tips for more effective conclusions
Conclusions: handy language
7.1
What’s a summary and how’s it different
from a conclusion?
A summary is a brief restatement – or recap – of the main points you’ve
presented in your discussion. Although it will often precede the conclusion,
it’s also sometimes presented as part of the conclusion. In either case,
though, it’s a way of reminding your reader of the main ideas you discussed
so that the conclusion can be read and understood more easily with those
ideas fresh in their mind.
As the quotation that begins this chapter indicates, students sometimes
confuse summaries and conclusions, so let’s begin by making a simple
distinction between the two. A summary, because it’s merely a restatement
of ideas already mentioned, adds no new information. A conclusion, on
the other hand,
does
add new information: it takes the ideas discussed
in the body of your writing and then implicitly asks (and explicitly answers)
the question, ‘What general observations can we make about those ideas?
What do we learn from them? What do they tell us?’ In other words, a
conclusion makes general statements about the ideas presented in your
main discussion; statements containing ideas that will most likely not have
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appeared elsewhere in your writing. The new information comes not from
adding to those ideas but by commenting on them.
Now take a look at these two examples of summaries.
In this final chapter of Part II I have attempted to show how prior
knowledge can, by diverse routes, give rise to the identification and
control of genres. I have alluded to the important role of schemata in
discoursal processing and production, but I have also observed that
schemata alone reflect a microcosmic cognitive world dangerously adrift
from communicative purpose and discoursal context. I have also noted that
hard evidence for the value of genre-based approaches to the development
of communicative competence is not yet readily available, although
indirect support for such approaches comes from a number of areas: from
schema-theory itself, from explorations into the power of prior texts,
from acquisitional psychology and from the limitations of a narrowly
expressivist view of reading and writing developments
.
(Adapted from Swales,
1990
)
This essay has considered the importance of pragmatic competence to
communication and levelled criticism at methods frequently used to develop
language learners’ pragmatic competence on the grounds that they
frequently fail to develop in learners an understanding of the pragmatic
conditions that determine whether or not a given utterance is acceptable
to other users of the language as an act, or the performance of an intended
function. This means that whatever learners glean of the relationship
between form and function – between what is said and what is meant – its
applicability is largely restricted to the particular instances of its use they
have experienced in their learning. Consequently, they are deprived of the
kind of productivity that comes from an understanding of general principles
and the process of discovery that such understanding enables. The quite
recent growth of pedagogical pragmatics has sought to address this problem
but takes a largely inductive approach in which the observation of particulars
leads to an understanding of general principles: over time, through regularly
engaging in awareness-raising activities of the kind outlined, learners will
gradually induce the broader principles that govern the choices we make in
language in order to effectively and appropriately convey meaning. It has
been suggested, however, that learners can simultaneously benefit from a
deductive approach through which an appreciation of those general and
universal principles that govern language choices and our ability to be
appropriate is instilled in them early on. By raising their awareness of these
general principles, we increase the likelihood that they will notice and
learn their particular realisations in English
.
You’ll notice that in the first example the summary is from the chapter of a
book (on genre analysis), whereas in the second example, it’s from an essay.
Nevertheless, the summary principles guiding both are exactly the same.
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7.2
Are summaries always needed?
Unlike an introduction, body and conclusion, summaries are not usually
considered an essential and necessary part of written work. That’s not to
say that you don’t need to worry about them. What it means is that you’re
able to use your discretion about whether or not to include a summary –
or summaries – in any particular piece of writing you are producing.
It’s important that you use this discretion because a decision
not
to include
a summary where one would be useful in helping the reader to follow
your thinking and ‘join the dots’ of your argument means that your work
will not be as accessible to the reader as it would if a summary
were
included. Remember, the more accessible your writing, the more enjoyable
it is to read
. . .
and the less frustrating. Anything you can do to get
the reader on your side will only benefit you when it comes to that all-
important grade!
So how do you use your discretion in deciding whether or not to include
a summary in your written work? Once again, the answer to that question
is ‘Put yourself in your reader’s shoes and ask yourself whether the com-
plexity of the ideas you have presented and/or the length of your written
piece will make it difficult for the reader to move easily from the body of
your essay to the conclusion without the help of a summary. And be honest
with yourself; be as objective as possible and, if necessary, get a second
opinion from someone who is not too close to your work. If the answer to
this question is ‘no’, then a summary is probably not necessary – although
it can certainly never hurt to include one anyway. If, on the other hand, the
answer is ‘yes’, then you probably ought to include a summary.
7.3
Where should I include a summary?
As we saw in
section 7.1
, a summary typically appears towards the end
of your essay and immediately prior to the conclusion. Sometimes it will
appear as a separate section, and sometimes as part of the conclusion,
immediately preceding your concluding statements. In an extended written
piece, such as a long essay or dissertation, you may feel that more than
one summary is necessary. You may, for example, decide that it would be
helpful to locate one at the end of each main section or main idea,
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