part in local politics or be integrated into the higher levels of either the
local administration systems or those of the French protectorate.
6
The penetration of Zionism into Morocco as an alternative to the other
two processes for Moroccan Jews led to the virtual “self-destruction”
of the Jewish community of Morocco. This was seen toward the end of
World War II with a large-scale Jewish emigration. The emigrants’ main
destination was Palestine—from 1948 the state of Israel—while a small
number emigrated to France and other European countries and to North
America. It is estimated that in the early 1970s, only 20,000 Jews remained
in all of Morocco.
Zionist activity in northwest Africa (Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia)
The Moroccan Nationalist Movement and Its Attitude toward Jews and Zionism · 163
had begun around 1900 and had slowly seeped into areas where there
were large concentrations of Jews. Local branches of Zionist organiza-
tions were founded, and a communication mechanism with the Zionist
organizations of Europe was established. Nevertheless, Zionist activity in
Morocco was very limited. The important change began toward the end
of World War II, mainly among the younger elements of the Jewish com-
munities, when emissaries of the Jewish Agency, the Hagana,
7
and the
Mossad Le-῾Aliya Bet arrived in the country.
8
Recruiting young Moroc-
cans into this new movement and training them for ῾aliya to Ereṣ Israel,
immigration to the land of Israel, resulted in two waves of emigration,
the first in 1943–45, and the second in 1947–49. Three main factors led
to the Jews virtually falling into the Zionists’ lap: first, the failure of the
colonial authorities to change the legal, social, and political status of the
Jews, leaving them in their continued dhimmi status under the makhzan
and the sultan; second, the recent political developments and changes
that enabled Jews to emigrate to Israel; and, finally, the poverty and suf-
fering from a low standard of living, especially of those residing in the
mellaḥs, the old Jewish neighborhoods in the larger cities.
9
On top of all these we may add another catalyst: the riots that broke
out on 7 June 1948 in the cities of Oujda and Jerada, close to the border
between Morocco and Algeria, which served as a transfer station for Mo-
roccan Jews on their way to Israel. In these riots forty-three Jews were
killed, dozens were injured, and property was greatly damaged. It is be-
lieved that the riots were brought on by the speech given a short while
earlier by Sultan Muḥammad Ben-Yussuf, which inveighed against the
Zionists and cried for solidarity with the Arabs fighting in Israel. Claims
have been made that the French authorities not only knew about these
impending events but also goaded and collaborated with the instigators
as a provocation against the heads of the Moroccan Independence Party,
who could later be blamed for committing murder. These events are con-
sidered the most significant in the relationship between Jews and Mus-
lims in Morocco and an important formative element in the emigration
process of Moroccan Jews.
10
Between 1949 and 1956, the activities of various ῾aliya operatives inten-
sified greatly. The establishment of the state of Israel signaled the prom-
ise of change and, at a time when their future in Morocco was highly
uncertain, of a new and better future for a large number of Jews. There
was also a messianic dimension, especially among Jews of the distant,
164 · Dalit Atrakchi
isolated towns and villages in the Atlas and Anti-Atlas Mountains, where
the appeal of a messianic delivery was very strong. Many of those who
immigrated to Israel during these years were brought from these areas,
and the Jewish presence in these towns and villages, which had existed
for hundreds of years, was almost totally ended.
11
The third wave of emigration and ῾ aliya took place mainly after Mo-
rocco became independent in 1956, but had actually begun in 1954. The
Moroccan Nationalists had begun to rebel against the French authorities
in 1954, due to the exile of Sultan Muḥammad Ben-Yussuf to Madagas-
car a year earlier. This was the first time that a clear division between
pro-French elements, comprising both foreigners and native government
officials, and Moroccan Muslims appeared. It is important to note, in
this regard, the ambivalence toward the Jewish community of the entire
spectrum of the Nationalist Moroccan Movement. Although they wanted
the support and cooperation of the Jews, the Jews were identified with
Zionism and as enemies of the entire Arab world. The Jews were put in
the same category as the other aliens in Morocco, and they identified
with France. In light of the developing warm relationship between Mo-
rocco and the independent Arab countries, especially the bond between
Morocco and Egypt, and later on Morocco’s acceptance into the Arab
League, numerous Moroccan Jews felt that they no longer had a place
in the newly independent country and that it was time to leave. After
Muḥammad V (now king) issued a decree closing the offices of Cadima
(the covert name for the Jewish Agency’s Immigration Department),
which had operated openly since 1949, ῾ aliya turned into illegal emigra-
tion through Misgeret (Framework). Misgeret functioned from 1956 until
1961 under the aegis of the Mossad, Israel’s secret service. Following the
death of King Muḥammad V in February 1961, the newly crowned King
Ḥasan II lifted many of the restrictions over emigration. However, Ḥasan
II, and many Moroccan politicians as well, emphasized that although
those who wished to leave the country could do so, the place of “his
Jews” was in their “natural habitat,” that is, in Morocco.
12
In the 1930s, the Independence Party of Morocco (Istiqlal) was di-
chotomized into moderates and conservatives. The conservatives, those
considered more radical, came from Spanish Morocco and were gradu-
ates of the Al-Qarawiyyin College in Fez (the most important religious
institution in Morocco). ῾Allal al-Fassi was the leader and ideologist of
The Moroccan Nationalist Movement and Its Attitude toward Jews and Zionism · 165
this more radical stream of the Istiqlal. Al-Fassi and his followers were
greatly influenced by the “disturbances” in Palestine in the years 1929
and 1936–39, and they espoused clearly anti-Jewish sentiments. The
more moderate members of the Istiqlal, such as Aḥmad Balafrej and
Muḥammad al-Kholti, who had graduated from the French Protector-
ate schools and from colleges and universities of the metropolitan areas,
searched for ways to recruit Jewish support in their struggle for French
government reforms that would better the entire population of Morocco,
Muslims in particular. Already in 1933, al-Kholti wrote an article in the
newspaper L’Action du Peuple in which he discussed the need for Jewish-
Muslim cooperation as a positive starting point for the implementation
of urgent reforms in various areas, such as the legal system, and for calls
for full equalization between Jews and Muslims.
13
Among other things,
al-Kholti pointed out, “this understanding, which is based on honesty
and loyalty,” would be the embarkation point for both youth parties and
would lead “the implementation of urgent reforms in the field of law. . . .
We want to prove that the Muslim youth of our day are filled with toler-
ance and love toward the entire human race and aspire to cooperate in
joint undertakings. . . . But this harmony cannot exist unless Jews and
Muslims are united and equal in the eyes of the law.”
14
Simultaneously, however, anti-Semitic propaganda was being dissem-
inated throughout Morocco, especially after Adolf Hitler came to power
in Germany in 1933, and then, even more forcefully, following the Span-
ish Civil War and the triumph of Generalísimo Franco (especially in the
Spanish zone of Morocco). It is noteworthy that European settlers were
usually behind this propaganda and that only a few of the claims and ac-
cusations were spread by Moroccan Nationalists. Assertions were made
that Jews were agents of the European imperialist exploiters, that they
were their agents in Palestine, and that they were harmful to the interests
of both the Europeans and the Muslims. These claims were repeated by
other radical Arab intellectuals, such as Shakib Arslan, the spokesman of
the Muslim Brothers, Hoda Sha῾rawi, of Young Egypt, and others from
Egypt, Syria, and elsewhere. The Great Arab Rebellion that took place
in Palestine in 1936–39 had a pronounced effect on the Nationalists in
Morocco, although their support remained in the form of unrestrained
declarations of support of the Palestinian struggle. Supporters of the Je-
rusalem Mufti, Hajj Amin al-Ḥusayni, were active in North Africa, where
166 · Dalit Atrakchi
they declared that they were anti-Zionists and anti-British, although they
were less verbal and practical than their idealistic brothers in a number
of other countries in the Arab Middle East.
15
During the period of Vichy rule in Morocco, 1940–43, the public’s at-
tention was focused on Europe and on the call for war. Almost all Zionist
activity came to a halt, anti-Jewish activities were hardly felt, and Nation-
alist activities came to a standstill as well. The leaders of the Nationalist
movement, headed by ῾Allal al-Fassi, were either in prison or in exile. A
sequence of events toward the end of the warfare in North Africa greatly
affected the relationship of the Nationalists with Jews and Zionism. The
first was the conquest of Morocco by American forces in the Lapid Opera-
tion in November 1943. Paradoxically, the end of the Vichy rule in Mo-
rocco led to a worsening of the condition of Moroccan Jewry after Moroc-
can Nationalists claimed that Jews had identified with the French Vichy
rule and had carried out their commands. Anti-Jewish riots, in which a
significant number of Jews were injured, occurred in Casablanca and in
other cities.
16
After the release of ῾Allal al-Fassi from prison in 1944, the establish-
ment of the Istiqlal as the unifying body of all nationalist streams in Mo-
rocco, and the foundation of the Arab League in March 1945, another ele-
ment was added to the prevailing anti-Jewish and anti-Zionist attitude:
total identification with the Mashreq, the brave fighters against Zionism.
The Arab defeat in the Palestinian War (1947–49) did not harm Arab soli-
darity in al-Fassi’s opinion. On the contrary:
In order to achieve solidarity within North Africa, we maintained
continued good relations with liberation movements—Arab and
others. . . . We proved our support many times. . . . When Arab
forces entered Palestine to release it from the Zionist groups, our
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