lah of Tissent in Ait Bou Oulli that “no Jew has land belonging to him
because the notaries (῾udul) do not want to register deeds that would
make the Jews landowners.”
30
Even more significant was legislation enforced during World War II.
The French authorities developed, through banks in Marrakesh and Aga-
dir, a system of credit, which enabled many Berber debtors to free their
lands from their Jewish creditors. Furthermore, there were several ad-
ministrative measures from 1941–42, the period when the Vichy regime
began to implement discriminatory laws against the Jews’ economic and
professional activities, to the detriment of Jewish ownership of land.
A decree (dahir) was issued that annulled the mortgages (rahn) held as
security, allowing the owners to reclaim their lands. While there were
Jews who got around their loans by disguising them in sales of merchan-
dise, some French officials actively sought to redeem land that had been
pledged to Jewish lenders. To a certain extent, Jews were able to circum-
vent the measures adopted during these years. Despite the availability
of credit through banks and efforts to suppress loans at interest, Jews
continued to find clients because, unlike the government that required
reimbursement at a fixed date, from the Jews it was possible to obtain
a prolongation of the debt.
31
Still, in some of the Atlas communities, the
In Search of Jewish Farmers: Jews, Agriculture, and the Land in Rural Morocco · 151
suppression of loans against security caused Jews to lose considerable
property, sometimes lands that they had held for generations. Some Jews
saw these measures as a turning point, unable to regain the lands that
they had previously held and adding to the impoverishment of their
communities caused by years of drought, famine, and epidemics, a rea-
son for emigration following World War II.
32
Despite the decline of some of the rural communities following World
War II, interest in Jewish farmers actually began to intensify in Morocco
in the 1940s and 1950s for ideological reasons that were rooted in the no-
tion of revitalizing the Jewish people through agriculture, an important
component in the modernist agenda of European Jewry since emancipa-
tion. The notion of the “return to the soil” found expression not only in
European ideas about the “regeneration” of the Jewish people but also
in Zionism and even Jewish support for Moroccan nationalism. Clearly,
however, European Jews did not “return to the land,” and they contin-
ued to concentrate in urban professional life. However, creating Jewish
farmers remained an important goal in the expansion of European Jewish
influence to the Jewish communities of the Mediterranean basin, as well
as part of the agenda for colonial emancipation in the Maghrib.
The Alliance Israélite Universelle, since its foundation in 1860, em-
braced this ideology. The creation of the Mikveh Israel school near Jaffa in
1870 was part of this agenda.
33
The Alliance was not interested in national
redemption in their ancestral homeland in this period. Rather, it wished
to bring modernity to the traditional Jewish community of Palestine or,
as Aron Rodrigue calls it, part of its “Palestineophile” orientation.
34
Once
established, it was also hoped that graduates of the AIU schools would
be sent there so that they could return to their native lands as farmers.
In Tunisia, an agricultural school was created at Djédeida, twenty-five
kilometers from Tunis in 1895, with the hope of extending its influence
among North African Jewry’s urban poor. To the AIU, agriculture seemed
the only way the young graduates of the schools could progress in a pre-
dominately agrarian country. Otherwise, the students would leave school
every year and have no other choice but to turn to “peddling and petty
commerce.” Land was also purchased in 1903 at Reghaïa near Algiers to
employ Algerians graduating from the Djédeida farm school. The Djé-
deida school, however, failed to produce more than a handful of Jewish
farmers, and with low enrollment, it closed in 1919.
35
The idea of creating a new generation of Jewish farmers out of the
152 · Daniel J. Schroeter
urban poor was also a very important part of the Alliance’s ideological
goal in Morocco. From its very origins in Morocco in 1860s, the Alliance
considered ways to provide agricultural training to Moroccan Jews. The
director of the AIU schools in Tangier, Samuel Hirsch, later became head
of the Mikveh Israel school in Palestine. He rejected, however, a pro-
posal in 1873 by the Austrian consul in Tangier to provide land he owned
outside Tetuan for an experimental farm school, expressing fears of in-
security and the lack of the rights of Jews to own farmland. Instead, he
proposed that the AIU develop a program with French settlers in Alge-
ria where Moroccan Jews could emigrate.
36
The “discovery” by Nahum
Slouschz of the Jewish farming community of Oulad Mansour in 1912
was followed by a visit by the director of the Alliance school in Mar-
rakesh in 1913, who reported on the Jewish farmers of Oulad Mansour to
the president of the AIU:
These brave souls, in my opinion, are worthy of interest. The Cen-
tral Committee will certainly also think so. The most useful work
that can be introduced is agricultural work. It is of interest to attach
this population to the soil which it cultivates itself, giving it the
means to become landowners. A young man trained on your farms
of Djédeida or Mikveh Israel, who is Arab speaking, would be a
valuable guide.
37
However, little concrete action was taken in Morocco to try to realize the
aim of producing Jewish farmers until the mid-1930s, once the French
military was firmly in control of all Morocco. A program was developed
at Souk al-Arba in the Gharb, through the help of a retired leader of the
AIU in cooperation with French settlers and Muslims, to encourage urban
Jews to “return to the land.” Jewish farmers, however, were to develop
modern farming techniques patterned after the French colonial settlers.
Wealthy Jews had purchased rural land near the major cities increasingly
since 1912, and it was hoped that this would provide the opportunity
to extend Jewish agricultural training. In 1936, an agricultural training
center was established in Marrakesh, the École Professionnelle Agricole,
which developed a whole program in modern agricultural techniques
and training, subsidized by the AIU and protectorate authorities. Its
French director was a graduate of the École Coloniale d’Agriculture
of Tunis. Students enrolled, first from Marrakesh and then from other
towns, and graduates were able to find employment on the expanding
In Search of Jewish Farmers: Jews, Agriculture, and the Land in Rural Morocco · 153
European farms. After World War II, a second agricultural school was
opened in Meknes.
38
Elias Harrus, the director of the École Professionnelle Agricole in Mar-
rakesh after World War II, was particularly fascinated by the exceptional
case of Oulad Mansour and visited the community frequently, periodi-
cally bringing his students from Marrakesh to the “Jewish agricultural
village.”
39
He observed that its inhabitants took pride in the distinctive
agricultural nature of their community, a continued source of their iden-
tity decades later after they were settled in various parts of Israel. Har-
rus observed the heartiness and pride of both the men and women (a
perception, it should be noted, that they maintained about themselves
once in Israel). He reported how one woman “didn’t hesitate to argue
. . . in the middle of the field, with Arabs who were not respecting her
cattle. This is a far cry from the self-effacing and fearful silhouette of the
Jewish woman of Demnat, who is happy when she isn’t the recipient of
insults or stones.”
40
While still in Morocco, the Jews of Oulad Mansur re-
counted their speed as workers during the harvest, even their daring and
strength, and while exhibiting very close ties and good relations with the
Muslim population, they also recounted stories that showed that they did
not fear the “Arabs.” This identity of a daring community was perhaps
even amplified after settling in Israel—the ability of this strong commu-
nity to defend itself—yet at the same time, the good ties with Muslims in
Morocco are remembered in contrast to the current conflict with Arabs.
41
Harrus saw the special case of Oulad Mansour as a symbol for the
future. Recognizing that Morocco was an agricultural country, he saw in
Jewish farmers the prospect for the “future of our children.” Unsurpris-
ingly, this modernist agricultural venture did not lead to a major “return
to the land” by Morocco’s Jewish youth, nor to a transformation of the
livelihoods of the Jewish rural sector in modern Morocco. This last Jew-
ish initiative to find and create Jewish farmers came with the major push
toward emigration to Israel on the eve of Moroccan independence. Prior
to the 1950s, a relatively small number of Zionist emissaries were sent
to Morocco.
42
But beginning in 1950, Israeli emissaries from the Jewish
Agency began to actively seek recruits among Moroccan Jews. As the
struggle for Moroccan independence unfolded in the 1950s, anxiety about
the Jewish future in Morocco mounted. In 1955, a year before Moroccan
(and Tunisian) independence, North African Jews represented 87 percent
of the new immigrants to Israel. This mass emigration of Moroccan Jews
154 · Daniel J. Schroeter
deeply affected the Jews of the rural south: between 1952 and 1957, about
40,000 or half the southern communities were brought to Israel.
43
Oddly enough, it was a controversy over restricting immigration of
Moroccan Jews to Israel that sparked a renewed interest in Jewish farm-
ers. Overwhelmed by the masses of new immigrants and unprepared for
the huge influx of Moroccan Jews, the Israeli government began imple-
menting regulations based on a quota system called seleqṣeya (selection)
to restrict the numbers of less “desirable” immigrants, requiring medi-
cal exams before authorizing aliyah, seeking the largest percentage from
young people already involved in Zionist youth movements, breadwin-
ners under the age of thirty-five who could support their families, es-
tablishing quotas for people over the age of thirty-five, and demanding
that candidates commit themselves to agricultural labor for two years.
Although this policy was designated for other countries of Europe, Asia,
and Africa, it most affected Morocco with its impending mass emigration
on the eve of struggle for independence.
44
The seleqṣeya regulations cre-
ated a stir among the tightly knit communities of southern Morocco, who
were usually unwilling to leave behind family members and relatives
and were vigorously protested by North African Jews in Israel.
45
The
Israeli scholar of Jewish North Africa, H. Z. Hirschberg, witnessed the
impact of this policy during his visit to Morocco in 1955. Writing about
the mellah of Tamnugalt, he observed that in the hope of immigrating to
Israel, many Jews sold their houses and plots of land to neighbors, but
meanwhile the “selection” order was implemented, disqualifying many
candidates for emigration and leaving them in limbo without further
livelihoods.
46
It is in the context of restrictive immigration policies that
Jewish farmers in rural Morocco were “discovered,” in all likelihood with
the aim of improving their chances to qualify for aliyah.
In 1952, when the Jewish Agency began actively seeking recruits from
the rural communities, leading the aliyah department in Casablanca was
Ze᾿ev Khaklai.
47
Despite the stiff opposition of some of the Moroccan
Jewish religious leadership, representatives from rural villages came to
the Jewish Agency office in Casablanca asking to emigrate. In May, Khak-
lai went on his first systematic tour of the Atlas Mountains, discovering
that in comparison to the Jews in the urban ghettos, the village Jews were
more suitable for aliyah because of their relatively good health and ca-
pacity to work. He found that they wanted to emigrate, but only on the
condition that they all emigrate together without separating the elderly
In Search of Jewish Farmers: Jews, Agriculture, and the Land in Rural Morocco · 155
from the young. Khaklai emphasized that for the villages it would be
impossible to apply the selective quota system.
48
He traveled again with
the director-general of the aliyah department in Jerusalem, Yitṣhak Rafael,
and a representative from the Ministry of Health, Dr. A. Matan, to deter-
mine the suitability of the different communities for aliyah.
49
What facilitated the emigration of a large sector of Moroccan Jews was
an ideological shift in Israel in this period, a coming to terms with the
mass immigration of newcomers who did not have the same training
and indoctrination in the Zionist youth culture of the elite ḥaluṣim. This
paved the way for the plan that unfolded in 1954 of settling non-elite im-
migrants in uninhabited regions of the Negev and border regions of the
country and directly affected the effort to move rural Moroccan Jews to
Israel.
50
The most important Zionist recruiter in the Atlas Mountains prior to
Moroccan independence was Yehuda Grinker, who took advantage of the
mounting tensions arising from the liberation struggle.
51
Inspired by the
labor ideology of returning to the soil, and hearing rumors about Jewish
farmers in the Atlas Mountains after his arrival in Morocco, Grinker was
determined to discover Jewish farmers, cattlemen, and sheep herders
wherever he went. Departing from Marrakesh and Demnat to the remote
surrounding villages in the mountains on several excursions, Grinker
“discovered” Jews everywhere working the soil. Arriving in Ait Arba
on Simhat Torah in October 1954, Grinker writes: “How could I not be
deeply impressed by these strong men, their livelihoods connected to na-
ture and to land?”
52
Following the seleqṣeya regulations, Grinker began to
register families for aliyah. He was told of some twenty-six villages where
Jews worked the land. News of his mission spread among the High At-
las communities, who were interested in emigration . Grinker traveled to
various Jewish communities in the High Atlas. “The more I traveled in
these villages and became closely acquainted with their Jews, I became
more and more convinced that these Jews represented the best and most
fitting human material for immigrant settlements.”
53
Grinker was deter-
mined to sign up and facilitate the emigration of the Atlas Jews, despite
the obstacles of the quota policy. He rang alarm bells of the imminent
danger that the Atlas Jews faced and militated against the seleqṣeya regu-
lations and in favor of their emergency emigration.
In light of Grinker’s alarmist pronouncements about the risk of mas-
sacres, it is difficult to say if Grinker knowingly exaggerated the extent of
156 · Daniel J. Schroeter
Jewish agriculture in order to improve their chances as candidates for ali-
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