part of the revitalization of Jewish life was called for by both those who
saw it as a means to integrate in the societies where Jews lived and by Zi-
onists, who saw the “return to the land” as a sacred duty for the national
restoration of the Jewish people. The result of this ideology, whether Zi-
onist or assimilationist, from the mid-nineteenth century resulted in the
In Search of Jewish Farmers: Jews, Agriculture, and the Land in Rural Morocco · 145
establishment for Jews of agricultural colonies and schools and commu-
nal farming settlements in Palestine, North Africa, the United States, and
Argentina.
This is the context for understanding the discovery, real and imag-
ined, of Jewish farmers in Morocco in modern history. This chapter will
therefore trace the encounter of Jewish farmers with foreign travelers in
the nineteenth century, with the French colonial administration, with the
Alliance Israélite Universelle, and finally with Zionist emissaries. Each
had its own ideological and stereotypical views of Jewish farmers. These
views, however, had political implications that affected the real world of
Jewish farming, the relationship of Jews to agricultural production and
the land, and finally Muslim-Jewish relations in Morocco.
Since antiquity, Jews have lived scattered throughout rural Morocco,
especially in the southern parts of the country. Following the Muslim con-
quest of the region, Jews continued to inhabit the region. Throughout the
post-conquest centuries, new Jewish communities were constantly being
formed and reformed in what has remained predominantly Berber areas,
with the Jews filling in specific niches in the rural economy, especially
crafts, trade, and peddling. While the particular economic role that Jews
played in the rural economy was recognized, the extension of new Jew-
ish settlements and the Jews’ acquisition of property potentially posed
problems and raised legal concerns. The question of Jewish property was
sometimes contested between local political authorities and the Jews, and
Muslim jurists were divided on the question of Jews and landownership.
The issue often arises on the subject of whether dhimmis are entitled to
construct new sites of worship in lands controlled by Islam. And while
Muslim jurists might rule against the building of new synagogues fol-
lowing the conquest of Islam, this was contradicted by the reality of new
communities formed, whose existence required building synagogues and
obtaining land to bury their dead.
7
Local Muslim authorities would of-
ten assert their own authority, sometimes over the objections of Muslim
jurists, in extending their own control over Jewish landownership. The
Jews, in turn, would legitimate their own right to residence by tracing
their origins to pre-Islamic antiquity, perhaps to counteract the Muslims’
perception of Jews as outsiders who required the protection and control
of the Muslim authorities.
8
Ownership of agricultural plots of land, for the most part, was re-
tained by Muslims, although Jews often held land in usufruct. On some
146 · Daniel J. Schroeter
occasions, however, Jews would buy and sell agricultural lands to Mus-
lims, obtaining some precarious autonomy but often to the consternation
of the local Muslim authorities.
9
Jewish control of agricultural land did
not lead to Jewish farming activities, and where Jewish farmers did exist
(in relatively small numbers and in a few specific locations), evidence
suggests that they did not own the land they worked. The fact that most
Jews were in professions other than agriculture, the occupation of the
vast majority of the Muslim population, was to the Jews a mark of their
distinction, indeed even demonstrating their superiority over non-Jews.
Thus Jews were generally not associated with agricultural labor, and they
even looked down upon working the land, a memory still kept by the
Muslim population.
The stereotypical image of the alienation of Jews from the land and
from agriculture explains why the existence of Jewish farmers in Mo-
rocco elicited such interest. Jewish agriculturalists in Morocco were even
legendary, mythical in character, catching the attention of the few foreign
travelers in the interior of Morocco in the nineteenth century. John David-
son, a British traveler in Morocco in 1835–36, who was killed during his
journey en route to Timbuktu, claimed in his journal to have inspected
more than one hundred villages of Jews and Berbers never before seen
by Europeans. He regards the lifestyle of the Jews to be similar to the Ber-
bers. Although he visited many locales, he heard only secondhand about
a district called Coubba, supposedly nearly as big as Marrakesh, where
there are no less than 3,000 or 4,000 Jews living in perfect freedom,
and following every variety of occupation; that they have mines
and quarries which they work, possess large gardens and extensive
vineyards, and cultivate more corn than they can possibly consume;
that they have a form of government, and have possessed this soil
from the time of Solomon; in proof of which he stated they possess
a record bearing the signet and sign of Joab, who came to collect
tribute from them in the time of the son of David.
10
The existence of Jewish farmers, imagined or real, surprised European
observers, challenging their stereotypical image of Jews. “The most curi-
ous thing in the country,” wrote one traveler in the late nineteenth cen-
tury, “seems to be certain tribes of Jews who are semi-independent, not
confined as elsewhere to the towns, but agriculturists.”
11
Most well known for Jewish farmers in the twentieth century was
In Search of Jewish Farmers: Jews, Agriculture, and the Land in Rural Morocco · 147
the community of Oulad Mansour on the northern flanks of the central
High Atlas Mountains, one of the few places in Morocco where most of
the Jewish community cultivated the soil.
12
Nahum Slouschz, the first
scholar to write extensively about the history of North African Jews, ob-
served Oulad Mansour in 1913:
The most striking feature about this picturesque village is the fact
that the majority of its Jewish population follow agricultural pur-
suits. Of its twenty-five families, fifteen or sixteen live by cultivat-
ing the soil. The strip of land that they cultivate and which extends
about a hundred and fifty hectares along the river bank, belongs to
Arab proprietors of Zemran, to whom the Jews are forced to pay
an annual tribute. They raise wheat, barley, and fruit, above all figs
and dates.”
13
Jews were engaged in agriculture in some of the other villages of the gen-
eral area of the western High Atlas, such as Ait Rehalt (fifteen kilometers
to the southeast of Oulad Mansour), Ait Saadelli, and Ait Hakim in the
Ghoujama, and several villages in Ait Bou Oulli.
14
Slouschz found that in
the two mellahs of Tougana, several families cultivated the soil.
15
In most cases, however, Jews were not farmers, and with much greater
frequency, when acquiring land, cattle, or flocks, they employed Mus-
lim sharecroppers (khammas or “fifth(s),” meaning they received a fifth
of the production) or entered into partnership with Muslims in which
the Jew owned the livestock and the Muslim looked after the animals,
not unlike the Jews of the Muslim Mediterranean world in the Middle
Ages.
16
Thus Jewish landowners were higher in the social hierarchy than
the mainly black khammas.
17
Often Jews owned small plots of land where
the women cultivated some vegetables and where fruit grew, such as
figs, apples, pomegranates, and grapes. In the communities of K’tawa
and M’hamid in the southern Draa valley, Jews owned land and palm
trees before the arrival of the French, usually in association with the
Berbers.
18
In the High Atlas region of Sidi Rahal, Jews owned consider-
able land before the Protectorate, although Muslims worked the land.
19
In other locations, such as in the Ghoujama of the High Atlas, Jews did
not own land or raise animals; instead, they entered into associations
with Muslims. Thus a form of interdependency developed: Jews who
were dependent on the Muslims for agricultural and livestock products
financed the Muslims’ needs.
20
Evidence from Ifrane (sometime written
148 · Daniel J. Schroeter
“Oufran” by Jews) of the Anti-Atlas region suggests that Jews practically
did not work the land, did not own cows, goats, or sheep (though they
owned a higher percentage of donkeys), and very minimally harvested
trees (olives, dates, almonds). The trees (unlike in M’hamid) did not be-
long to the Jews in principle, but rather were declared “rented” by the
Jews; in reality they were Muslim properties held as security by Jewish
lenders, and the production of the harvest constituted the interest paid
by the Muslim debtors.
21
Even in the exceptional community of Oulad
Mansour, although Jews often owned their own cattle, only a few Jews
actually held title to their land as private property.
22
Most of the Jews of
Oulad Mansour rented small plots of land, usually paying the Muslim
owner a portion of their production.
23
Foreign control was extended before colonial rule along the coasts, and
through the pressure of foreign powers and the system of consular pro-
tection, foreigners acquired the right to own land. Among the major ben-
eficiaries were Jewish protégés of foreign powers, some of whom began
to acquire considerable lands in the regions surrounding the ports, often
through Muslims who mortgaged their land and then, after defaulting in
the repayment of loans, gave up their titles to the lands. The expansion of
commerce along the coast and the beginnings of commercialized agricul-
tural production also affected land tenure in the interior of the country.
Jews in the Sous region of southwestern Morocco, through their associa-
tion with Jewish merchants in Essaouira, were able to acquire deeds to
property from defaulted debtors, alarming the local Muslim authorities,
who appeared to be largely unsuccessful in prohibiting the practice.
24
It was not only the connection of protégés to foreign merchants that led
to an increase in Jewish landownership. Connections to powerful poten-
tates might also help Jews acquire land. Perhaps the most significant ex-
ample was the relationship to the dominant family in southern Morocco,
Madani al-Glawi and his brother Thami al-Glawi. In the years before the
establishment of the protectorate, the Makhzan came to rely increasingly
on the “grand qa᾿ids” to control the south. Ishu῾a Corcos, the wealthy and
powerful leader of Marrakesh’s community, was tightly connected to the
Glawi family. The Glawi brothers became closely aligned to the French,
who helped bolster their position as virtual rulers of the regions to the
south of Marrakesh, with literally dozens of “Glawi” palaces and strong-
holds in the Atlas mountains and valleys to the south of Marrakesh. Af-
ter the death of Madani, Thami, the “Pasha of Marrakesh,” became the
In Search of Jewish Farmers: Jews, Agriculture, and the Land in Rural Morocco · 149
singular most powerful leader of the central High Atlas. Significantly,
in the five casbahs that Glawi constructed for his deputies in the south,
there were either mellahs or significant Jewish population in the area un-
der his control.
25
Jews also became closely linked to Glawi and his agents.
Corcos served as a key intermediary for Glawi, through the former a
conduit for the production of his many landed properties. Corcos himself
was able to acquire considerable landed property.
26
The transition to colonial rule brought some uneven changes in the
relationship between Jews and the land in rural areas. While it might
seem like the extension of French control and the elimination of legal
restrictions would facilitate easier acquisition of rural land by Jews, this
was often not the case. Local circumstances, some of which predated the
French conquest, were often determining factors. Here we have seen a
wide range of possibilities. In some areas, Jews were not allowed to own
land, either the surrounding fields or the houses they lived in. In some
cases, Jews owned the trees but not the land itself. Elsewhere Jews in-
deed owned land and were able to take possession of land when a debtor
defaulted. However, in the small mellahs of the High Atlas, it was often
only a few Jews who actually owned the land by title as individual hold-
ings (mulk).
27
In some locations, often when a powerful chief owned the
land, Jews rented their land and houses. As we have seen, Jews farmed
in only a very few places; in many more instances, Jews either employed
sharecroppers if they owned the land or held land as usufruct usually the
result of the Jews loaning money to the Muslim property owners who
farmed and harvested their land in association with the Jews. This was
based on a contract, referred to in Arabic by a more generic term, rahn,
whereby a debtor transfers to his creditor the possession of his property,
which was then held as usufruct until the debt was reimbursed. In theory,
this usually lasted for three years, but in reality it was understood that
there was no intention to pay off the debt. This may have been the most
common means by which Jews acquired property, although in theory,
the land was more often held as usufruct rather than by title of owner-
ship. This sometimes led to disputes about actual ownership, since by
this means Jews might hold land for generations.
The situation of landownership was also far from static, and many
factors could alter the status of Jews in relation to the land. On the one
hand, Jews may have taken advantage of environmental crises of the
twentieth century and bought land from destitute Muslim owners.
28
The
150 · Daniel J. Schroeter
Jews’ niche in the rural economy meant that often they were the only
local population with liquid capital at their disposal and thus capable of
purchasing land. Yet other factors may have impeded their access to ru-
ral lands in the colonial period. Some Jews complained that pacification
actually led to the decrease in Jewish landownership, since formerly Jews
would loan money needed by Muslims whose resources were constantly
depleted by fighting. One military officer wrote in 1951: “The Jews are
convinced that in the past, well before the pacification, they were rich.
They owned land and lent money to Muslims that was wiped out in
wars. With the calm, the Jews lost everything.”
29
Another factor that may have worked to the disadvantage of Jewish
landowners was the measures adopted by the colonial system to establish
a more documented system of land tenure. In rural areas, many Jewish
landholdings may have been acquired through oral agreements, rather
than written title, which were passed down through generations. Fur-
thermore, Muslim notaries would be reluctant to formalize land transfers
to Jews. Alfred Goldenberg, one of the leading educators for the Alliance
Israélite Universelle in Morocco after World War II, wrote about the mel-
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