Information Processing
“Funnel-like process”
Attention
Interest
Need
recognition
awareness
Motivation
Internal variables:
Individual Psychological field:
- Personality
- Interests
- Involvement
- Attitudes
- Perceptions
- Knowledge and past
experiences/Learning
External variables
- Economic environment
- Sociocultural
environment:
- Culture and values
- Reference groups
- Family
- Social Class
STIMULUS
Information search
Evaluation of alternatives
Choice and Purchase
Post-purchase evaluation
Satisfaction/dissatisfaction
Purchase decision process:
Figure 4.1:
Consumers’ decision-making process.
Tourist Behaviour and Trends
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stimulus (information), which captures their attention or interest and
makes them think that their current situation may be improved if a particu-
lar product/service is purchased and consumed. Accordingly, consumers
begin a search for information about products that may satisfy their needs.
The information will be evaluated in light of their past experiences and cur-
rent knowledge, their own personality, their personal attitudes and values,
etc. But when evaluating information, they will be influenced not only by
internal factors but also by many other external elements that condition
them to make a purchase decision. Among these factors, we may cite the
culture and values prevailing in their society, demographic and economic
aspects of their environment or the opinions of their affinity groups
(family, friends, peers, neighbours, etc.). Consumers ponder alternatives
and end up choosing that one option which, a priori, would maximise
utility and satisfaction. While deciding, consumers will perceive risks (e.g.
economic, functional, social, psychological) that are associated to the pro-
duct purchase. The value of brands is important, since a strong brand will
build trust and facilitate consumer choices. After a purchase, consumers
evaluate the product and, depending on their satisfaction, they may com-
municate about it to acquaintances. In addition, after making purchases
and experiencing products, consumers learn about brands and become
loyal to those that are perceived as the best ones. If this process is used in a
tourist context, destination image and brands arise as an important stimu-
lus to initiate tourists’ buying behaviour.
Since understanding tourists’ needs, preferences and choices is vital for
destinations and businesses, tourist behaviour has been the object of
numerous studies by academic researchers, DMO managers, governments
or by consulting companies. But consumer behaviour, and in particular
tourist behaviour, is complex because of the multiple factors that come in
play. According to Sirakaya and Woodside (2005, p. 825), models explain-
ing tourist behaviour are generally characterised by describing how ‘tour-
ists follow a funnel-like procedure to narrow down choices’ among sets of
alternative products they are aware of. Tourists make successive choices,
eliminating alternatives from a set that comprises acceptable alternatives,
until they finally choose a destination or a brand. Consequently, models
have to explain why tourists reject certain brands to choose others, and
which factors determine tourists’ decisions.
Given the importance of understanding tourist behaviour, numerous
authors have proposed explicative models in the past years. The main con-
tributions are discussed in the following section which presents a brief over-
view of tourist decision-making models.
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4.2.2.
Explicative Models for Tourist Behaviour
The first attempt to model tourist behaviour was made by Wahab,
Crompton, and Rothfield (1976), who described tourists as rational
decision-makers who try to maximise their utility when purchasing tour-
ism products. Tourists appraise the consequences of their actions by eval-
uating the cost and the benefits of the different alternatives before
making a decision. Consequently, tourists will choose those products that
seem to them more attractive, and which they perceive as providing the
best affordable value proposition. But when assessing different product
information, they are influenced by other people’s opinions (family,
friends, colleagues and peers on the internet). These reference groups
affect their evaluation process and decision. So marketing managers
should pay attention and provide reasons to those reference groups to
recommend the tourism product. Another implication for destination
management is to build a strong and appealing image and brand for the
destination, since the recognition of a strong brand is likely to influence
tourists’ choices.
Schomoll (1977) drew attention to the fact that although tourists make
rational decisions, they may have limited knowledge of the destination. It is
therefore important to create awareness of the brand in the tourists’ mind,
because even if a destination may be very appealing, consumers may not
choose it because of a lack of information and trust about it. Tourists’
decision-making process depends on the one hand upon stimuli to initiate
it, and on the other one hand, upon external, personal and social variables
that influence tourists while deciding.
Mayo and Jarvis (1981) explained tourists’ choices as the result of their
travel opportunities and goals. They supported previous authors’ under-
standing of the travel decision-making process as one through which multi-
ple variables affect the tourist, with special attention to the influential role
of peer groups and family.
Mathieson and Wall (1982) described tourist purchase decision-making
as a sequential process which starts when tourists feel the desire or need for
travel, and which is followed by an information quest, an evaluation of
that information and finally the travel decision. Their main contribution
was to note that the consumption process continues after the purchase,
when tourists prepare the trip, and when they experience the tourism pro-
duct until they are back home and evaluate their travel experience.
Figure 4.2 describes the process from the time tourists decide to go on a
trip until they are back at home. Tourists make choices across the three
Tourist Behaviour and Trends
107
stages and each stage contributes to the final result of their travelling
experience.
Van Raaij and Francken (1984) investigated how personal factors such
as personality or aspirations, together with household factors like lifestyle
or decision-making style, affect tourists’ decisions. However, Moutinho
(1987) considered that tourists’ travel choices are mainly the consequence
of external variables that affect tourists when they are deciding. Beyond
this consideration, his most remarkable contribution was to point out that
tourists make consecutive decisions, choosing at first the destination and
then other service elements such as accommodation, leisure activities, etc.
So as Figure 4.2 shows, a tourist purchase is not always limited to a pack-
age that provides everything visitors may need. Following Moutinho’s
insight, tourists will often make numerous decisions while travelling, and
destinations and tourism companies have to plan accordingly.
Woodside and Lysonski (1989) reviewed existing models and focussed
their attention on the process through which tourists evaluate the evoked
set of destinations to end up selecting one of them. They first warned about
the small size of the consideration set, three to five destinations at the
most. So working on tourist awareness of a destination is essential, since
tourists who know about a destination before making a decision will
• Searching
• Planning
• Expectations
• Decisions
• Buying
• Anticipation
• Preparation
Pre-consumption
• Experiencing
• Enjoying
• Navigating
• Searching
• Short-term decisions
• On-site buying
• On-site evaluation
Consumption
• Sharing
• Memories
• Evaluation
• Loyalty building
• Advocating
Post-consumption
Figure 4.2:
The consumption of tourism product by tourists.
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Lidia Andrades Caldito et al.
transfer that knowledge from their long-term memory to their working
memory. Another important issue to consider is that tourists will be
affected by cognitive and emotional situational factors. Tourists’ final
choices will result from the interaction between their intention to visit and
the situation in which they decide.
Figure 4.3 describes how tourist choices result from how they process
information about tourism brands according to their own perceptions,
beliefs, past experiences, knowledge, motivations, etc.
Um and Crompton (1990) analysed the role of tourists’ attitudes when
choosing a tourism destination. They also studied how destination image
affects tourists’ attitudes toward destinations. Azjen and Driver (1992)
evaluated those internal factors (e.g. attitudes, intentions, motivations,
involvement) that may affect tourist choices. Involvement is understood as
the extent to which a tourism product or recreational activity is relevant
for tourists, making them feel motivated, interested or aroused toward it
Figure 4.3:
The complexity of tourist choice. Source: Adapted from
Walker (2001).
Tourist Behaviour and Trends
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(Andrades & Dimanche, 2014; Havitz & Dimanche, 1997, 1999). Tourists
that exhibit a higher level of involvement with a destination, due for
instance to social bonds that link them to the destination, will have more
positive attitudes toward the destination and will present a greater motiva-
tion and intention to visit.
Woodside and MacDonald (1994) critiqued the previous consensus
about tourists making rational decisions and explained how tourist choices
may be sometimes irrational. Accordingly, Walker (2001) highlighted the
need for more realistic models, as evidenced in Figure 4.2, to describe tour-
ist behaviour. Moreover, reflecting over the complexity inherent to explain-
ing tourist behaviour, Woodside and MacDonald introduced another
aspect to be considered, the influence that the travel party has in travel
decisions. Indeed, the selection of a destination is only the first choice, but
many other decisions will be taken at the destination, and the travel party
may then have a substantial role to play.
Independent travellers are a growing market. Hyde and Lawson (2003)
suggested that independent travellers’ motivations are reflected in their
decision-making process at destinations. By independent travellers they
meant those who are willing to take risks in choosing vacation elements,
who enjoy experiencing the unplanned, and who experience an evolving
itinerary.
A particularly important aspect of studying tourist behaviour is to
understand the reasons why travellers choose a tourism product instead of
another. Tourist motivations are indeed a key component to understand.
The knowledge of tourists’ motivations brings to destination managers use-
ful information about tourist needs and wants, and helps them with desti-
nation planning and marketing. Tourist motivations are discussed in the
next section.
4.2.3.
Tourist Motivation for Travel
Motivation is a driving force that stimulates consumers’ behaviour
(Fodness, 1994). Motivated behaviours result from tourists’ biological or
psychological needs, desires and wants (Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Motivators
for travel or behavioural activators could be the chance to share good times
with family and friends, to escape home and work routine, to explore and
discover new cultures, to rest and relax, to practice favourite activities, to
indulge in luxury, etc. Motivation can be defined as those primary forces
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that encourage, guide and sustain a person’s behaviour (Dann, 1981; Iso-
Ahola, 1999). This concept has often been used as a predictor of travelling
behaviour and tourist choice. Knowing about tourists’ motivations is there-
fore important for destination and tourism firms’ managers. Motivation
can be a useful variable to define tourism products, to segment markets,
and to efficiently use tourism resources, in order to meet tourists’ needs,
expectations and desires.
A theoretical framework that is generally well accepted is the ‘pull and
push model of motivation’ (Dann, 1977; Uysal, Li, & Sirakaya-Turk,
2008). According to this framework, tourists travel because they are pulled
and pushed by ‘some forces’ (Dann, 1981; Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Push
motivations are internal desires and emotions that make tourists feel like
going away from home and travelling, while pull motivations are mainly
external reasons that induce in tourists the desire to travel or to visit a
particular destination (Gnoth, 1997). These external reasons are related to
tourism destination attributes and situational conditions, while the internal
reasons for travel are more related to tourists’ personal desires and needs
(Crompton, 1979; Kim & Lee, 2002). Pull motivations are encouraged by
the appeal of the destination, so destination attributes such as landscape,
culture, history, mix of activities, climate, etc. may stimulate and
strengthen tourists’ desire for travelling. Destination positioning, branding
and building a strong and appealing image are essential to motivate tour-
ists to visit.
Box 4.1:
Image of Russia in the United States
Stepchenkova and Morrison (2006) studied how American tour opera-
tors portrayed Russia on their websites. They identified 10 image
themes of Russia that influence how American people see Russia:
• Culture and history;
• Nature parks;
• Siberia and Baikal;
• Cruise tours;
• Moscow and St. Petersburg;
• Solovki, Kamchatka and hunting.
‘The most prevalent themes were related to the cultural, historical,
and arts aspects of the Russian image (culture and history; Moscow;
(Continued )
Tourist Behaviour and Trends
111
St. Petersburg), and the natural features of Russia (Kamchatka; nat-
ure parks; Baikal; Siberia)’ (p. 954). The authors concluded that US
tour operators narrowly position Russia as a historic and cultural
destination, with a geographic focus on western Russia.
As shown in Figure 4.4 (already presented in Chapter 3) tourism desti-
nations can be understood as systems that have two central elements: On
the one hand, destinations resources and attractors, and the other hand,
tourists for whom the destination is developed. Destinations develop and
build their value proposition based upon their core resources and attrac-
tors, and these represent external motivating factors for tourists. Since des-
tinations should meet tourists’ expectations, marketers have first to
understand tourists’ intrinsic motivations for travel, and then provide tour-
ists with chances to fulfil those needs and expectations. If a destination can
do this efficiently, tourists will be satisfied and they will become loyal to
that destination. When tourists come back to a destination and recommend
it to their peers, they heavily contribute to destination sustainability and
competitiveness.
Tourists’ motivations may vary along the consumption process. There
are motivations that can work as initiators of the purchasing phase, for
instance, when tourists are at home and realise the need to escape routine.
Later, at the destination, other motives may influence tourists’ choices
related to the activities they may enjoy, from participating in cultural visits
or engaging in recreational sports activities. Finally, once they are back
home, tourists’ motivations to communicate about their travel experience
may also be varied, from the need to share memories with peers, to make
recommendations, or to indulge in self-expression.
Despite the importance of understanding such an important aspect of
consumer behaviour, professionals and academic researchers are still con-
fronted to problems in determining tourist motivation. Tourism is such a
complex phenomenon with very varied products and service that the range
of needs that are addressed is very broad. Tourist motives result from inter-
nal and external factors and motivation is often multi-dimensional. Those
needs and motivations may be deeply rooted in tourists’ minds and are
sometimes difficult to uncover. Finally, tourist motives evolve over time
and even change, for the same person, from one trip to another.
Motivation remains a complex subject. If efforts must be made to better
understand what motivates tourists to visit a destination, tourism
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