Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
Shokhor-Trotsky, the founder of the “practical exercise” method,
identified a threefold objective to mathematical teaching: educational,
formative, and practical. He believed that the educational component is
attained when the student has acquired a set of examined mathematical
notions, concepts, ideas, and skills. The aims of education are attainable
only when students learn willingly and gladly. They must derive both
physical pleasure (from producing successful diagrams, calculations,
and models) and intellectual pleasure (from completing work, and
overcoming difficulties). These ideas are in accord with contemporary
views on the psychology of education.
The formative component, according to Shokhor-Trotsky, is
attained through the cultivation of “intellectual–cultural” habits. Stu-
dents must grasp the notion of functional relationships within the
limits of their knowledge; must develop powers of observation and
a critical attitude toward the veracity of observation; must acquire
a habit for precise verbal formulation of questions, generalizations,
logical arguments, and so on. The teacher must cultivate the students’
interest not only in mathematical knowledge but also in its application
in reality (both in school and in everyday life).
Shokhor-Trotsky defined the practical objective as a degree of
mastery of mathematical concepts and skills such as befits any cultured
person. In his opinion, this so-called “baggage” was of no less
importance than the mental skills fostered by elementary mathematical
education (Shokhor-Trotsky, 1886).
F. A. Ern (1912) had devoted one of three chapters of his Notes on
the Methodology for Teaching Arithmetic (pp. 55–58) to the objectives
of studying arithmetic: the material and the formal. Material objectives,
in his opinion, are attained when students receive information that is
valuable in and of itself. Thus, the study of arithmetic “comes down to
the study of arithmetical operations, their substance and execution.”
In order to attain the material objective, one must “teach the children
to arrive at the result correctly, promptly and, if possible, elegantly.”
First, the pupils must learn oral operations with numbers up to 100,
then move on to written operations, after which the two must proceed
in parallel, neither one supplanting the other. Here, one needs not
only problems but also special “number exercises.” In order to perform
arithmetical operations elegantly, the student must be able “to choose
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The History and the Present State
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the simplest of available operations, in this case, the one that leads
quickest to the result” (Ern, 1912, p. 77). Ern paid special attention
to so-called simplified techniques of calculation. He believed that once
students become familiar with the basic properties of arithmetical
operations and the theorems governing the changes of the results of
operations, they must turn to exercises that apply this knowledge to
actual calculations, such as:
• 125 × 36 = 125 × (4 × 9) = (125 × 4) × 9 = 500 × 9 = 4500;
• 96 ÷ 24 = 96 ÷ (3 × 8) = (96 ÷ 3) ÷ 8 = 32 ÷ 8 = 4;
• 245 + 197 = 242 + 200 = 442; 245 − 197 = 248 − 200 = 48.
According to Ern, the study of mathematics aims at a balanced
and unified cultivation of the students’ skills, intelligence, emotional
depth, and willpower. The most important of these is intellectual
development: formulation of clear and precise notions and concepts,
and acquisition of logical thinking skills. Ern believed that students
must arrive at an understanding of number and arithmetical operations,
and their properties by way of generalization. The habit of thinking
logically and testing the veracity of an assertion by reasoning about
it is important in and of itself. It is moreover important to cultivate
in students the habit of working independently through solving and
especially composition of arithmetical problems. He saw this type of
work as the fundamental form of creative activity that rouses interest
and entices students toward independence.
The foregoing views of progressive Russian educators on elemen-
tary mathematical education — as interesting as they were modern —
did not, however, gain wide acceptance. In the 1901 Courier of Experi-
mental Physics and Elementary Mathematics, V. V. Lermantov made the
claim that the school has a duty to instruct its students in various types
of knowledge that are in demand and have direct application in “the
everyday struggle.” The journal’s editor, V. F. Kagan, countered that
Lermantov’s views hold true for specialized schools only, and that “any
nation that permits specialized education to supplant general education
is in great peril.” Among the diverse skills to be learned, Kagan singled
out the most important and the most difficult of all — the skill of
thinking. That is the sole objective of general education, to be attained
by cultivating in students a coherent worldview and humane attitudes.
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
The purpose of mathematical education was debated at the two
National Congresses of Teachers of Mathematics in Saint Petersburg
(winter 1911–1912) and in Moscow (winter 1913–1914). In his
presentation, A. G. Pichugin asserted that despite its formal and logical
significance, the study of mathematics must be practically useful. “This
usefulness is to be understood not in the sense of rank utilitarianism
that shuns any thought that cannot be exchanged for ready money, but
that pure utility that speaks of the broad horizons of a comprehensive
education” (Pichugin, 1913, p. 160). Professor A. K. Vlasov noted
that “the objective of mathematical education … is to foster in the
pupil a capacity for mathematical reasoning … that addresses itself
as much to number and calculation, as to special conceptualization
and organization … .” (Vlasov, 1915, p. 25). Participants stressed
the importance of pictorial geometry, functional propedeutics, and
reasoned calculations for the elementary school curriculum. The
initiatives of these conventions were cut short by the First World War.
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