4
Elementary Education in the Complex Programs
of Soviet Russia, 1918–1932
After the October Revolution (1917), in the spring of 1918, the new
state issued a Decree on General Education, establishing a unified labor
school for all segments of society. The new school comprised two
stages: the first lasted five years (later four) for children aged 8–13;
the second lasted four years (later five) for children aged 14–17. The
curriculum was structured around principles of real-world application,
ethnic and gender equity, and instruction in the native language.
During this period, mathematics was not taught as a separate subject.
Instead, all subjects were oriented toward the study of such complex
ideas as “nature and man,” “labor,” or “society,” aimed at cultivating
in the pupil a comprehensive view of social reality. The study of
mathematics had a strictly practical purpose.
Acquisition of speech, writing, reading, counting and measurement
must be fused with the study of concrete realities; there should be no
distinct subjects such as arithmetic or Russian … . (Proekt, 1918).
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The “Model Curriculum Project for the Primary Stage of the
Unified Labor School–Commune” (Proekt, 1918) states that educa-
tion shall not be oriented toward communicating maximum knowledge
(knowledge without application is useless). The most important goal
is for students to work independently on problems encountered in
the everyday school environment. “There are nothing but problems
requiring mathematical application. Mathematics must spread out its
roots and find nourishment wherever there is strict correlation between
phenomena, subject to quantifiable analysis” (p. 43). At the same time,
the Project of 1918 introduced many new topics, including functional
propedeutics, construction of diagrams, finding the area and volume
of various figures, and so on. The ideas it set out, however, were not
fully realized.
Taking labor as the “axis of existence,” the programs consider
each phenomenon not discretely, but in relation to other everyday
phenomena grounded in the production economy. From year to year,
the field of study expands as students grow and develop new skills.
The table below gives an overview of the program divided into grades
(Lankov and Moshkov, 1927, p. 6).
Nature and man
Labor
Society
1st grade
Seasons of the year.
Working life of the
family (urban or
rural).
Family and school.
2nd grade
Air, water, soil.
Cultivated plants and
animals.
Care for these.
Working life of the
village or city
district, where the
child lives.
Social institutions of
the village or the city.
3rd grade
Elementary observations
in physics and chemistry.
The nature of the region.
The life of the human
body.
Regional
economy.
Social institutions of
the region.
Scenes from the
country’s past.
4th grade
Geography of the USSR
and other countries.
The life of the human
body.
Economy of the
USSR and other
countries.
Political system of the
USSR and other
countries.
Scenes from mankind’s
past.
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
Regional natural history was the common thread running through
the four years of the curriculum. The primacy of direct observation
gradually gave way to the predominance of the written word in the form
of books, reference works, newspapers, and other materials (Proekt,
1918, p. 9).
Here are some of the topics covered in the textbook for the second
grade of a rural school (Zenchenko and Emenov, 1926, pp. 90–91):
Summer pastimes and summer work for children. Life of the school.
Nature in autumn. Famine in the Russian Federation. The human
body. Cultural life of the village. Feeding of livestock.
The following are subject headings from the exercise book for the
third grade (Lankov, 1926):
Our village. The October Revolution. Our region. Our town. Man.
Our place: district, region. Summer work.
Here is an assignment from the exercise book for the first grade of
an urban school (Kavun and Popova, 1930, p. 58):
(a) Measure every day the depth of the snow in the sun and in the
shade. Record your readings.
(b) Build two snowmen, each 50 cm tall — one in the sun, the other in
the shade. Measure their height every day. Record your readings.
Below are a few problems from the exercise book for the second
grade of a rural school (Zenchenko and Emenov, 1926):
• A girl wanted to know how many raspberries she had gathered
over the summer. It turned out that in July she had gathered
20 pitchers of red raspberries and 10 pitchers of yellow raspber-
ries, and in August she had gathered 20 pitchers of red raspberries
and 30 pitchers of white raspberries. How many jars of raspberries
had the girl gathered in her garden? Make up a problem about
your own experience of gathering raspberries.
• Draw the path from the village to the forest where you gathered
berries and mushrooms.
• As an experiment, some children had taken 100 g of oats and
picked out all impurities: there were 14 g in total. How many
grams of seeds would remain after impurities had been taken out
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of 500 g, 1000 g, and 700 g? Carry out the same experiment with
the seeds in your care and make up a problem based on your
observations.
• The blood in a healthy human body circulates 120 times in one
hour. How many kilograms of blood does the heart pump in this
time if the total weight of blood in the body is 5 kg?
• Calculate. Make up similar problems and solve them.
18
+ 2
28
+ 2
38
+ 2
25
+ 5
45
+ 5
65
+ 5
16
+ 4
36
+ 4
56
+ 4
47
+ 3
67
+ 3
87
+ 3
• There are 36 children in the first grade, 30 in the second
grade, and 30 again in the third and fourth grades. How many
children in total study at the school? Draw a diagram representing
the distribution of children in the different grades of your
school.
• Draw a plan of the classroom, the school, and the school grounds.
• Build a cubic centimeter and a cubic decimeter using paper and
glue.
One positive element of these “complex” curricula was that the
study of mathematics was motivated by the demands of the student’s
everyday life and took into account personal experience. However, the
lack of systematic study, simplification of materials, and lack of concern
for mathematical skills all contributed to an education that “failed
to instill deep and systematic knowledge, and left students largely
unprepared for publicly useful activity or further training” (Pchelko,
1977, p. 15).
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