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Magic in the Thirteenth Century
89
of specific forms. Abu Ma‘shar distinguishes between three types of nat-
ural properties (khawass): material, formal and astral.
119
Respectively,
these produce primary qualities, substantial forms and the specific traits
within the species and genus. Albertus explains that there are material,
formal and astral properties; occult power is from the ‘form that is
conferred by the heavenly powers acting diversely in matter’. This is
the ‘specific form’ of Avicenna which does not belong to either the
properties of elementary complexions or substantial forms but it is
an active ‘predisposition inherent’ in the complexion of species and
individuals.
120
According to Albertus, the specific form ‘is [intermediate]
between two [things] – the heavenly powers by which it is conferred,
and the matter of the combination into which it is infused’.
121
To create
a talisman, an artificial potent object, the inherent occult properties in
the materials used need to resonate with specific astral powers that cor-
respond with the purpose in order to empower the object. Astrological
timing is thus paramount to this kind of operation.
122
Moreover, the
desire itself to make the talisman is, according to Albertus, due to a celes-
tial impulse that ‘incites the heart of man to make [something]’. That is
not to say that the will is controlled by the stars, but ‘when nature is
moved by the motions of the stars, then the will also begins to be influ-
enced by the motions of configurations of the stars’; in other words, the
will is inclined to perform a magical act and therefore the timing of the
desire is crucial in the making of a talisman.
123
It is an act of aligning
matter, form and desire, with the stars.
Aquinas’s own exposition of occult properties in particular species and
individuals is linked to his view of generative agency. We have seen that
he states that whatever occurs in the terrestrial world is the result of its
natural subordination to the higher world. In De Operationibus occultis
naturae (On the Occult Operations of Nature), Aquinas explains that there
are certain occult workings (operationes occultae, actiones occultae) of nat-
ural objects that cannot be the result of elemental qualities such as the
attraction of lodestone to iron and purgative medicine. These are occult
powers resident in the body and common to all species but can be traced
to higher principles; namely, the celestial bodies.
124
To explain these
properties or powers Aquinas too resorts to the theory of the specific
form. Every accident which is unique to a certain species is derived from
the essential principles of that species. The essential principle is a form
existing in determinate matter, this is the specific form. The rise and
fall of the celestial bodies cause generation and corruption in inferior
things – an Albumasarian notion – and therefore it follows that their
specific forms are caused by them.
125
However, Aquinas takes this astral
90
The Arabic Influences on Early Modern Occult Philosophy
connection further by imparting astrological uniqueness to the single
member of the species. He explains that it is impossible for an indi-
vidual of a species to have some kind of power or activity beyond the
other individuals of the same species, just because it came into being
under a definite configuration of heavenly bodies. Yet it is possible that
the power of the specific form of an individual is found in various
levels of intensities depending on the diverse states of matter and the
different configuration of the heavenly bodies at the time coming-into-
being occurred. This is reminiscent of al-Kindi’s and Albertus’s assertions
that material constitution as well as celestial influences contribute to
the variation of occult properties in natural things. But, unlike al-Kindi
and Albertus, Aquinas restricts the magical application of this theory
of natural/astral specific forms to amulets and medicine and excludes
talismans.
As in his delineation of astrology’s lawfulness, Aquinas’s discussion
of magic is structured upon the kind of agency active in the opera-
tion. In the Summa theologica, he first addresses magical practices that
require gazing at symbols, shapes and words; ‘this art does not make use
of these things as causes, but as signs; not however as signs instituted
by God, as are the sacramental signs’. Like non-astrological divination
that interprets arbitrary signs, these empty signs can be demonic tokens.
Therefore, these practices are ‘absolutely repudiated’.
126
However, there
are other lawful procedures that aim to produce physical effects natu-
rally. They employ natural forces or occult properties that ‘result from
their substantial forms which they acquire through the influence of the
heavenly bodies; wherefore through this same influence they acquire
certain active forces’. He rejects the suggestion that artificial bodies can
receive potency and life from the power of the celestial bodies because
all life and properties come from the substantial forms and it is impossi-
ble for a thing to receive a new substantial form from generated natural
things without losing the form which it previously possessed.
127
There-
fore, talismans and ‘astronomical images’ must derive their power from
the actions of demons which is why they often require the inscrip-
tion of characters and symbols that do not induce any natural effect.
128
In Summa contra gentiles he explains that figures, symbols and shapes
that are often found on talismans cannot be powerful as they cannot be
principles of action or passion. Hence, it is not possible to dispose matter
by special figures so that it will be receptive to a natural or astral effect
even if they use celestial figures and symbols. They are, like mathemat-
ical bodies, abstract from sensible form and matter and have a rational
meaning not a natural effect. Therefore, if they do have potency, it is
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