Naughty children in Gafur Gulam’s and Mark Twain’s works Contents Introduction Chapter I. Uzbek and American literature and their impact to the world Literature

Saidahmad Vasli Samarkandi was a writer of Samarkand literary trend. He was also a teacher and scholar. Vasli wrote textbooks in Uzbek, Arabic and Farsi. He also wrote his books in these languages. His well known books are “rmug’oni duson” in Farsi, “Devoni Turki” in Uzbek, “Nazmus silsila” in Farsi, poems “Arab ud din” in Uzbek. In linguistics he wrote a book “Mukaddimai sarfi navhu Arabi ham namunai sarfu navhu Farsi”.
Abdulhamid Cho’lpon is one of the founders of a new Uzbek poetry, translator, editor, play writer Cho’lpon was born in 1897 in Andijan. He took his first education in old school. Then he studied in Russian-tuzem school. In 1914 he came to Tashkent and began his activity in the newspaper “Sadoi Turkistan”. His compositions were edited also in newspapers and journals in Ufa, Kazan, Bogchasaroy. From 1916 he lived in Orenburg and worked as a secretary in one of the administrations of government. Then he returned Tashkent. Till 1920 he served in TrkRosTA. In 1920 he served in took part in meeting of Eastern people in Baku.
Gafur Gulom was born in Tashkent in 1903. He took an education at an old Rus-tuzem schools, then he studied at teacher’s training course. He came to literature with his poem “Guzallik nimada”. He developed Uzbek poetry with new conception and methods by his collection of poems “Tirik qo’shiqlar” , “Dinamo”, “Sharkdan kelayotirman”, “Sarhisob”.
Gafur Gulom opened bold glance in raising main problems of his time, deepening on human sense and in finding or original description in the history of Uzbek literature. His poems “Sen yetim emassan”, “Men yahudiy”, “Sog’inish”, “Bizning ko’chada ham bayram bo’lajak”, “Yigitlarga”, “Vaqt”, “Suv va nur”, “Kani meni yuldizim” were the great event in the Uzbek poetry and brought the glary of literature to the foreign countries.


1.2. American literature and its periods

American Literature begins with the orally transmitted myths, legends, tales, and lyrics ( always songs) of Indian cultures there was no written literature among more than 500 written Indian languages and tribal cultures that existed in North America the first European arrived. As a result, native American oral literature is quite diverse. Narra lives from quasi-nomadic hunting cultures like the Navajo are different from stories of settled agricultural tribes such as the pueblo-divelling Acoma; the stories of Northern lakeside duelers such as the Ojibwa often differ radically from stories of desert tribes like the Hopi.⁶

Tribes mountained their own religions workshipping gods, animals, plants, or sacred persons. System of governments ranged from democracies to councils of elders to theocracies. These tribal variations enter into the oral literature as well.
Still, it is possible to make a few generalisations Indian stories, for example, glow with reverence for nature as a spiritual as well as physical mother. Nature is alive an endowed with spiritual forces; main characters may be animals or plants, often tolenis associated with a tribe, group, or individual. The closest to the Indian sense of holiness in later Amercan literature is Ralph Waldo Emerson’s Transcendental. “Over-Soul” which pervades all of life.
The Mexican tribes revered Quetzalcoatal, a god of the Jottecs and Azetecs and some tales of a high god or culture were told elsewhere. However, there are no long standardized religious cycles about one supreme divinity. The closest equivalents to Old world spiritual narratives are often accounts of shamans initiations and voyages Apart from these, there are stories culture heroes such as the Ojibwa tribe’s Manabazho or the Navajo tribe’s loyalty.
These tricksters are treated with varying degrees of respect. In one tale they may seem selfish or foolish. Also past authorities, such as the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung , have deprecated trickster tales as expressing the inferior , amoral side of the psyche, contemporary scholars some of them Native Americans point out that Odysseus and Prometheus, the revered Greek heroes are essentially tricksters as well.
Examples of almost every oral genre can be found in American Indian literature: lyrics, chants, myths, fairy tales, humorous anecdotes, incantations,
Riddles, proverbs epics and legendary histories. Accounts of migrations and ancestors abound, as do vision or healing songs and tricksters tales. Certain creation stories are particularly popular. In one well-known creation story told with variations among many tribes with variations among many tribes, a turtle holds up the world. In a Cheyenne version, the creator, Moheo has four chances to fashion the world from a watery inverse. He sends four water birds diving to try to bring up earth from the bottom. The snow goose, loon, and mallard soar high into the sky and sweep down in a dive but cannot reach bottom but the little coot, who cannot fly, succeeds in bringing up some mud in his bill. Only one creature, humble Grandmother Jirtle, is the right shape to support the mood world Maheo shapes on her shell-hence the Indian name for America , Jurtle Island”.
Had story taken a different turn, the United states easily could have been a part of the great Spanish or French overseas empires. Its present inhabitants might speak Spanish and French and be joined with Canadian Francophone Quebec and Monreal.
Yet the explorers of America were not English, Spanish or French. The first European record of exploration in America is in a Scandinavian language.
The first known and sustained contact between the Americas and the rest of the world, however, began with the famous voyages of an Italian explorer, Christopher Columbus , funded by the Spanish rulers Fedinand and Isabella, Columbus journal in his “Epistola”, printed in 1493 recounts the trips drama-the terror of the men, who feared monsters and thoughts they might fall off the edge of the world the near mutiny; how Columbus faced the ships logs so the men world not known how much farther they had travelled than anyone had gone before and the first sighting of land and they neared America.⁷
The hard-fought American revolution against Britain (1775-1783) was the first modern war of liberation against a colonial power. The triumph of American Independence seemed to many at the time a divine sigh that America and her people were destined for greatness Military victory fanned nationalistic hopes for a great new literature . Yet with the emption of outstanding political writing, few works of note appeared during or soon after the Revolution.
American books were harshly reviewed in England Americans were painfully aware of their excessive dependence on English literary models. The search for a native literature became a national obsession. As one American magazine editor wrote , around 1816, “Dependence is a state of degradation fraught with disgrace and to be dependent on a foreign mind for what we can ourselves produce is to add to the crime of indolence the weakness of stupidity”
Cultural revolution, unlike military revolution, cannot be successfully imposed but must grow from the soil of shared experience. Revolutions expressions of the heart of the people they grow gradually out of new sensibilities and wealth of experience. It would take 50 years of accumulation history for America to earn its cultural independence and to produce the first great generation of American writers: Washington Irving, James Fenemore Cooper, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Jhoreau, Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hauthrone, Edgar Allen Po, Walt Whitman and Emily Dickenson. America’s literary independence was slowed by a lingering identification with England or classic literary models and difficult economic and political conditions that hampered publishing.
Revolutionary writers, despite their genuine patriotism, were of necessity self-consious and they revolutionary generation could never find a roots in their American sensibilitres. Colonial writers of the revolutionary generation had been born English, had grown to maturity as English citizens and had cultivated English citizens, and had models of thought and English fashions in dress and behavior. Their parents and grandparents were English as were all their friends. ⁸
Added to this American awareness of literary fashion still lagged behind the English and this time lag interfiled American imitation. Fifty years after their frame in England, English neoclassic writers such as Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, Oliver goldsmith and Samuel Johnson were still eagerly imitated in America.
Moreover, the heady Challenges of building a new nation attracted talented and educated people to politics, low and diplomacy. These per suits brought honor, glory and financial security. Narrating on the hand did not pay. Early American writers now separated from England, effectively had no modern publishers, no audience and no adequate legal protection. Editorial assistance, distribution and publicity were rudimentary.
Untill 1825, most American authors paid printers to publish their work. Obviously only the leusired and independently wealthy, like Washington Irving and the New York Knickerbocker group, or the group of Connecting poets known as the Hartfard Wits, could afford to indulge their intent in writing. The exception, Benjamin Franklin though from a poor family was a printer by trade and could publish his own work.
The lack of an audience was another problem. The small cultivated audience in America wanted well know. European authors, partly out of the exaggerated respect with which former colonies regarded their previous.
If we go to the past history of America in the second half of the nineteenth century , the fertile, mineral-rich American continent West of the Appachians and Alleghenies was peopled and exploited.
Between, the end of the Civil War and the beginning of the first world war, the country was wholly transformed, Before the Civil war America had been essentially a rural agrarian, isolated republic whose idealistic, confident and self-reliant inhabitants for the most part believed in God; by the time the United States entered World War I as a world power, it was an industrialized, urbanized continental nation whose people had been forced to come to terms with the implications of Darwin’s theory of evolution as well as with profound changes in its own social institution and cultural values.
The central material fact of the period was industrialization, on a scale unprecedented in the earlier experiences of England an Europe. Between 1850 and 1880 capital invested in manufacturing industries more than quadrupled, while factory employment nearly doubled. By 1885 four traneontinontal rail read lines were completed, using in their own construction an carrying to manufacturing centers in Pitsburg , Cleveland, Detroit and Chicago the nation’s quintupled output of steel. This extensive railway car in turn made possible such economic developments as the centralization of the meat packing industry in Chicago Control over this enterprise as well as other industries passed to fever and large companies as time went on. In the two decades following the 1870s a very small number of men controlled without significant competition the enormously profitable steel, railroad, oil, and meat packing industries .
The group of men, known variously as buccaneers, captains of industry self- made men, or robber barons included Jay Could, Jim Hill, Leland Stanford, Jim Fisk, Andrew Carnegie, J.P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller. However different in temperament and public behavior all of these men successfully squeezed out their competitors and accumulated vast wealth and power. All were good examples of what the English novelist D.H Lawrence described as the lone hand and the huge success. These were the men who served as examples of Mark Twain’s ‘Colonel Berian Sellers” a character who in turn epitomizes much of the spirit of acquisitiveness excoriated by Twain in the Gilded age, 1873 (a novel written in collaboration with Charles Dudley Warner)
During the half century, when the literature discussed in this section was written, the United states went through some of the greatest changes in its history. In the muddle of 19^th century it was still mainly a country of farmers trade and manufacturing were growing more important with each decade but it was not until the 1870s that a majority of Americans were making a living in non-forming occupations. Meanwhile in 1850 to 76 million in 1900 the population cared from century Negro slovery was still a fact of American life. The nation was being split into by it. The South defended slavery more and more vigorously the North Criticized it more and more earnestly. The bitter war waged between the North and South from 1861 to 1865 permanently attired the Character of American life. For many people - the great poet Walt Whitman for one it was the central fact of their lives.
For the South it meant the lingering flower of defeat; for the negroes it meant freedom enjoyed by the whites.
After the Civil war the nation entered a period of vast commercial expansion. Railroads stretched from one end of the country to the other. Factories were built. Cities grew bigger. Fortunes were made.
Throughout history men have expressed their dissatisfaction with their present condition through the written and spoken world. The thinkers in a society writers among them, are the persons most likely to examine prevailing values and to distern flaws in the social structure before these flows have been recognized by society as a whole . This examination of values was as prevalent in the 19^th century as it is in the 20^th.
Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau for example both died that making money was as important as many Americans believed. On the other hand both authors strongly affirmed the rights of the individual was thin and is now a vital part of the American creed.
The American Romanticists of the mid-19th century, who termed themselves Transcendentalists and who were led by Ralph Waldo Emerson, preached the positive life.
There were also several other concepts that accompanied Transcendentalism and which have had even more influence. One was the idea that nature was ennobling, that men were somehow better for being out in the woods or meadows and that on the other hand commerce was degrading that a life spent in business was a wasted life.
During the late 19th century, and into the 20th century artists and musicians contributed to the idea of realism in the American setting. Each, though slightly different in concept or subject, was defining what was going on in front of his or her eyes, without imagining a past or a future. While it has been stated that American Realism was a neoclassical movement borrowing from ancient classical interpretations of art and architecture, this statement is false. American Realism was actually the opposite; instead of reflecting back to antiquities, artists, writers and musicians were concerned with recording the grit and the true reality of the early 20th century in America.
From the late 19th to the early 20th centuries, the United States experienced enormous industrial, economic, social and cultural change. A continuous wave of European immigration and the rising potential for international trade brought increasing growth and prosperity to America. Through art and artistic expression (through all mediums including painting, literature and music), American Realism attempted to portray the exhaustion and cultural exuberance of the figurative American landscape and the life of ordinary Americans at home. Artists used the feelings, textures and sounds of the city to influence the color, texture and look of their creative projects. Musicians noticed the quick and fast paced nature of the early 20th century and responded with a fresh and new tempo. Writers and authors told a new story about Americans; boys and girls real Americans could have grown up with. Pulling away from fantasy and focusing on the now, American Realism presented a new gateway and a breakthrough — introducing modernism, and what it means to be in the present.
American Realism in literature was a late nineteenth-century movement that began as a reaction against romanticism and the sentimental tradition associated primarily with women writers. Chief among the authors writing in this genre were William Dean Howells, Henry James, Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, Jack London, Kate Chopin, and Stephen Crane. Although the realist aesthetic influenced European as well as American literature, the American tradition emerged somewhat later in the century and employed slightly different conventions than its continental counterpart. American Realism was most commonly a feature of narrative fiction, although authors occasionally applied its themes and literary techniques to poetry and drama as well. Further, the critical debate surrounding the proper definition and literary validity of realism spawned a considerable number of essays—often by the same authors who were writing realistic novels and short stories—in the literary journals of the day.
To many writers and critics of the late nineteenth century, realism was synonymous with the works of the French novelist Emile Zola, whose works emphasized sexuality, immorality, and the lives of the lower classes. America, still under the influence of Puritanism, resisted such themes as inappropriate for literature and continued to cling to the optimism and idealism associated with the Romantic Movement. The pessimism that followed European industrialism and the population shift from country to city arrived in America more slowly, perhaps as late as the 1880s, although some scholars insist that the realist movement actually began shortly after the Civil War. Warner Berthoff (1965) has made a case for the former, claiming that “the great collective event in American letters during the 1880s and 1890s was the securing of ‘realism’ as the dominant standard of value.” Jane Benardete (1972) has chosen a slightly earlier date, claiming that realism “flourished in the last three decades of the nineteenth century,” and the majority of literary historians tend to agree with her.
Closely associated with prairie realism was the local color literary movement, which emphasized specific, detailed descriptions of actual places and reproduced regional dialects in the characters' dialogue. Scholars have been divided on whether local color literature qualifies as part of the realist tradition given that it does not necessarily address contemporary social and ethical issues; nevertheless, many critics have included local color as a subset of realism based on its utilization of similar literary techniques. For his part, Berthoff has maintained that a major element of American Realism is “a haunting sense of loss, as at some irreversible falling away from a golden time,” and claims that local color literature is most especially associated with this loss. Josephine Donovan (1983) has argued that women's local color literature can be firmly situated within the anti-romantic tradition of women's realism, which sought to represent the actual conditions of women's lives, no matter how grim. Habegger, however, has claimed that while realism and local color “were born together and remained in close touch … the difference—local color's adherence to old times rather than the passing scene—cannot be too much emphasized.” Habegger insists that local color should be treated as a separate aesthetic since it fails to deal with contemporary realities.
Commentators have generally maintained that William Dean Howells and Henry James were the foremost practitioners of American Realism, although many have included Mark Twain as part of the “great authorial triumvirate” of the realist movement, as Benardete has put it. An advocate for realism in his fictional works and as editor-in-chief of the Atlantic Monthly, Howells equated romanticism with the Old World aristocracy and therefore considered realism to be the appropriate aesthetic for the emerging institution of American literature. Further, he believed that American Realism should concentrate on common life experiences which could instruct and inform readers rather than on the gross, immoral subject matter and pessimistic tone of European Realist literature.
Howells's works include A Modern Instance (1882), The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885), and A Hazard of New Fortunes (1890). James was perhaps the most technically refined novelist and short story writer of the American Realist movement. He has been admired by many scholars as a true student of the craft, creating highly sophisticated narratives and inventing psychologically complex characters. For James, an artist did not need to gather information and employ factual events and situations to produce realistic literature; rather, an artist only needed to rely on the limitless imagination to recreate realistic characters, scenes, and circumstances. Some of James's most significant contributions to realism were The Portrait of a Lady (1881) and What Maisie Knew (1897).
Twain had been widely regarded as the most celebrated late nineteenth-century American author to contribute to the realist movement. While some critics have taken exception to including Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) within the opus of American Realism, others have pointed out that this tour de force addresses many of the same nineteenth-century social and ethical issues as other realist writers but with less pessimism and more of Twain's trademark caustic humor and acerbic wit.