National university of uzbekistan named after mirzo ulugbek foreign language and literature department

CHAPTER I DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
1.1 Linguistic and pragmatic aspects of phraseological units
Phraseological units are an essential part of any language and play an important role in effective communication. According to Makkai, phraseological units are "multi-word sequences that form a unit in terms of meaning, syntax, or both, but whose behavior is not strictly predictable from the behavior of their components"¹. In other words, phraseological units are groups of words that function as a single semantic unit with a figurative meaning that is not necessarily predictable from the meanings of the individual words.
Phraseological units can be classified in various ways, based on their form, meaning, and syntactic structure. One common way to classify phraseological units is based on their degree of fixity, which refers to the extent to which the words in the unit are fixed in their order and cannot be changed without affecting the meaning. Idioms, for example, are highly fixed units, such as "kick the bucket," which means "to die." As Carter and McCarthy note, "the elements of an idiom are not interchangeable, and the meaning of the whole is not determined by the meanings of the parts"². Proverbs, on the other hand, are less fixed than idioms and are more flexible in their syntactic structure. For example, the proverb "All that glitters is not gold" can be rephrased as "Not all that glitters is gold" without affecting the meaning.
Another way to classify phraseological units is based on their lexical content, which refers to the type of words that make up the unit. Collocations, for instance, are units consisting of two or more words that frequently occur together and have a mutual influence on each other's meanings. As Benson et al. point out, "collocations are a product of the habitual co-occurrence of certain words, and they are a key feature of the lexicon of any language"³. Collocations can be classified into different types based on the type of relationship between the words, such as adjective-noun collocations (e.g., strong coffee), verb-object collocations (e.g., make a decision), and noun-preposition collocations (e.g., the beginning of the year).
Proverbs are another type of phraseological unit that is based on their pragmatic function. Proverbs are concise, pithy sayings that express a general truth or moral principle, often based on common experience or shared cultural values. Proverbs are deeply rooted in the culture and history of a language and are used to convey wisdom, humor, or criticism. As Gibbs and Colston observe, "proverbs are used to impart wisdom, to give advice, to criticize, to entertain, and to express attitudes toward life"⁴.
Other types of phraseological units, such as phrasal verbs and compounds, are more flexible in their grammatical structure and can be modified to some extent without changing their basic meaning. For example, the phrasal verb "take off" can be modified with an adverb, as in "suddenly took off," or with a preposition, as in "take off from the airport." Similarly, compounds can be formed from two or more words to create a new lexical item, such as "bookcase" or "headache."
In addition to their collocational patterns and degree of grammatical flexibility, phraseological units also have distinctive syntactic functions within a sentence. Some types of phraseological units, such as idioms, have a fixed position within a sentence and cannot be moved without disrupting the sentence structure. For example, the idiom "kick the bucket" must appear in the predicate position of a sentence, as in "He kicked the bucket." Other types of phraseological units, such as phrasal verbs and compounds, can be used in various positions within a sentence, depending on the intended meaning and communicative context.
Pragmatics refers to the study of how language is used in social contexts to convey meaning beyond the literal meaning of the words themselves. As such, the pragmatic properties of phraseological units are closely linked to their communicative functions and the social contexts in which they are used.
One key pragmatic property of phraseological units is their role in establishing social and cultural identity. As Partington notes, "phraseology can be seen as a repository of shared cultural knowledge, values and attitudes"⁵. The use of certain phraseological units can signal membership in a particular social or cultural group, as well as convey a sense of belonging and shared identity. For example, the use of idiomatic expressions such as "cool as a cucumber" or "break a leg" may signal membership in a particular cultural group and convey a sense of shared cultural values and attitudes.
Another pragmatic property of phraseological units is their role in creating interpersonal relationships and establishing rapport between speakers. As Stubbs notes, "phraseology is an important tool for establishing rapport, creating solidarity and building community"⁶. The use of phraseological units can signal shared experience, attitudes, and perspectives, thereby creating a sense of familiarity and connection between speakers. For example, the use of colloquial expressions and idiomatic phrases can create a more informal and friendly tone in communication, signaling a desire for rapport and connection.
In addition to their role in establishing social and cultural identity and creating interpersonal relationships, phraseological units also have important pragmatic functions in discourse. They can be used to signal attitude, emotion, and speaker stance, as well as to express humor, irony, and sarcasm. For example, the use of ironic idiomatic expressions such as "great minds think alike" in response to a foolish statement can signal sarcasm and convey a negative attitude towards the speaker's statement.
Pragmatic functions of phraseological units refer to the ways in which these units are used to convey meaning beyond their literal sense. As noted by Bakirov, "phraseological units are not just arbitrary combinations of words; they serve certain pragmatic functions and are widely used in communication."⁷
One of the main pragmatic functions of phraseological units is to express a particular attitude or stance. As pointed out by Yo’ldoshev, "phraseological units are an important means of conveying evaluative and emotive meaning in discourse."⁸ For example, the phrase "in a nutshell" is often used to express a summary or a generalization, while the phrase "get off my back" conveys annoyance or frustration.
Another pragmatic function of phraseological units is to facilitate communication by conveying shared knowledge or cultural references. As noted by Reichstein, "phraseological units often carry cultural information and can serve as markers of in-group identity."⁹ For example, the phrase "the elephant in the room" is used to refer to a topic that is being avoided or ignored, and assumes a shared cultural knowledge of the metaphor.
Finally, phraseological units can be used to establish rapport and build social relationships. As noted by Wray and Perkins (2000), "phraseological units are an important means of building social bonds and establishing common ground between speakers." For example, the phrase "how's it going?" is a common greeting in English that helps establish a friendly rapport between speakers.
The pragmatic properties of phraseological units are a crucial aspect of their communicative function. As noted by Tognini-Bonelli, "phraseological units are significant not only because they are fixed expressions, but also because they are often used to convey pragmatic meaning."¹⁰
One of the main pragmatic properties of phraseological units is their ability to convey implicatures. As pointed out by Wray , "phraseological units are often used to convey implicatures, which are inferences that go beyond the literal meaning of the words."¹¹ For example, the phrase "it's not rocket science" is often used to convey the implicature that something is not difficult to understand or do.
Another important pragmatic property of phraseological units is their ability to express politeness and social rapport. As noted by Howarth, "phraseological units are often used to express politeness and to build social rapport between speakers."¹² For example, the phrase "my pleasure" is a common response to a thank you, which conveys politeness and a willingness to help.
Phraseological units also have the ability to create a sense of identity and belonging. As noted by Moon, "phraseological units are often used to create a sense of group identity and to signal membership in a particular social group."¹³ For example, the phrase "keep it real" is often used as a slogan or catchphrase among young people and signals a shared set of values and attitudes.
The acquisition and processing of phraseological units are important topics in the field of linguistics, as they shed light on how these units are learned and used in communication. As noted by Ellis, "the acquisition and processing of phraseological units is essential to successful communication in a language."¹⁴
One aspect of the acquisition of phraseological units is the development of pragmatic competence, which involves the ability to use language appropriately in different social and communicative contexts. As pointed out by Pawley and Syder, "the acquisition of phraseological competence is essential for developing pragmatic competence in a language."¹⁵
The processing of phraseological units also involves the integration of pragmatic information. As noted by Yusupov, "processing phraseological units involves the integration of both linguistic and pragmatic information, which is critical for understanding their meaning and communicative function."¹⁶
Moreover, the acquisition and processing of phraseological units involve a combination of both explicit and implicit learning. As noted by Schmitt and Martinez, "the acquisition of phraseological units involves both explicit and implicit learning processes, which contribute to the development of pragmatic and communicative competence."¹⁷
The processing of phraseological units is influenced by a number of factors, including context, discourse structure, and individual differences in language proficiency and experience. As noted by Meunier & Granger, "the processing of phraseological units is influenced by a range of factors, which highlights the complexity of their use and the importance of considering both linguistic and pragmatic information."¹⁸
The study of phraseological units from a pragmatics and discourse analysis perspective sheds light on the ways in which these units are used to convey meaning and shape communication. As noted by Stubbs, "phraseological units are not only useful for expressing meaning, but also for exploring the ways in which language works in context."¹⁹
One important aspect of the discourse analysis of phraseological units is their role in establishing coherence and cohesion in discourse. As pointed out by Omazić, "phraseological units play a key role in maintaining the coherence and cohesion of discourse, by providing a link between different parts of a text or conversation."²⁰
Another important aspect of the discourse analysis of phraseological units is their ability to convey stance and attitude. As noted Coxhead, "phraseological units can be used to convey a range of attitudes and stances, such as evaluation, irony, and humor, which are essential for creating meaning in discourse."²¹
Furthermore, the study of phraseological units from a pragmatic perspective can shed light on how they are used to perform social and communicative functions. As noted by Verschueren, "phraseological units can be used to perform a range of social and communicative functions, such as establishing rapport, conveying politeness, and expressing humor."²²
Finally, the study of phraseological units from a pragmatics and discourse analysis perspective highlights their dynamic nature, and the ways in which their use is influenced by social and cultural factors. As noted by Roizenzon, "phraseological units are not fixed and static; rather, their use is influenced by a range of social and cultural factors, which are important to consider in their analysis and interpretation."²³
Phraseological units are an essential part of language, serving a variety of pragmatic functions in communication. These units are fixed expressions, consisting of two or more words, that have a conventional meaning that is different from the meanings of their individual components. They are often used to convey complex meanings in a concise and accessible way, and are an important tool for establishing coherence and cohesion in discourse.
One of the primary pragmatic functions of phraseological units is to convey evaluation and attitude. As Sinclair note, these units "serve a variety of pragmatic functions, including expressing evaluation, indicating attitude, creating humor, establishing rapport, conveying politeness, and achieving rhetorical effects."²⁴ By using these units, speakers can convey their opinions and attitudes on a particular topic, and signal their stance or point of view. For example, the phrase "piece of cake" is often used to express that something is easy, while "hard nut to crack" conveys the opposite.
In addition to conveying evaluation and attitude, phraseological units are also used to achieve rhetorical effects, such as humor or irony. As Sinclair note, "the use of certain phraseological units can create a humorous or ironic effect by conveying a meaning that is different from the literal meaning of the words."²⁵ For example, the phrase "it's raining cats and dogs" is often used to convey the idea of heavy rain, but it also has a humorous effect due to its unusual literal meaning.
Another important pragmatic function of phraseological units is to establish coherence and cohesion in discourse. As Coulthard note, "phraseological units can be used to establish cohesion and coherence by providing a link between different parts of a text or conversation."²⁶ By using these units, speakers can signal a connection between different ideas, and create a cohesive and coherent discourse.
Furthermore, phraseological units are also important for conveying politeness and establishing rapport. As Cowie note, "certain phraseological units are commonly used to convey politeness, such as 'thank you' or 'excuse me'."²⁷ By using these units, speakers can show respect and deference, and establish a positive rapport with their interlocutors.
Finally, phraseological units are also an important tool for signaling social identity and group membership. As Verschueren notes, "phraseological units can be used to signal the speaker's social identity and group membership, and to establish solidarity with other members of the group."²⁸ By using these units, speakers can demonstrate their membership in a particular group or community, and establish a sense of shared identity and solidarity.
One of the primary ways in which phraseological units are used in discourse is to establish cohesion and coherence. As Crystal note, "phraseological units can be used to establish coherence and cohesion by providing a link between different parts of a text or conversation."²⁹ By using these units, speakers can signal a connection between different ideas, and create a cohesive and coherent discourse.
Moreover, the use of phraseological units can also reveal social and cultural values and assumptions. As Fedulenkova note, "the use of certain phraseological units can reveal cultural assumptions, such as attitudes towards gender, social class, or race."³⁰ By analyzing the use of these units in discourse, researchers can gain insights into the underlying values and assumptions that shape communication.
Another important aspect of discourse analysis is the study of how phraseological units are used to create meaning. As Nattinger and DeCarrico note, "phraseological units provide ready-made expressions for speakers to use, enabling them to communicate their intended meaning efficiently, and with minimal cognitive effort."³¹ By analyzing the use of these units in different contexts, researchers can gain insights into how speakers use language to create meaning, and how this meaning is shaped by social and cultural factors.
Furthermore, the study of phraseological units in discourse analysis can also shed light on how language is used to construct power and identity. As Gee notes, "language is not only a tool for communication, but also a means of constructing and negotiating social identities and power relationships."³² By analyzing the use of phraseological units in different contexts, researchers can gain insights into how speakers use language to establish and negotiate their social identities, and how this process is shaped by power dynamics.
Phraseological units are multi-word expressions that have become conventionalized in a language. These units are an important aspect of language acquisition, as they enable learners to communicate more effectively and efficiently in the target language. In this article, we will explore the acquisition and processing of phraseological units and how it can be facilitated.
Firstly, it is important to understand the nature of phraseological units and their role in language acquisition. As Pawley and Syder note, "phraseological units are a central feature of language, and their use is critical to effective communication."³³ These units are acquired over time through exposure to language and through explicit instruction, and their use is influenced by a wide range of social, cultural, and situational factors.
One of the key challenges in the acquisition of phraseological units is the processing of these units in real-time communication. As Firth and Wagner note, "the processing of phraseological units is complex, and involves the integration of different linguistic and contextual cues."³⁴ This means that learners need to be able to recognize and use phraseological units in a wide range of communicative contexts, and to do so with fluency and accuracy.
To facilitate the acquisition and processing of phraseological units, it is important to provide learners with exposure to these units in authentic communicative contexts. This can be achieved through the use of authentic materials such as newspapers, television programs, and conversations, which provide learners with examples of phraseological units in use.
Moreover, explicit instruction can also be useful in facilitating the acquisition of phraseological units. As Ellis notes, "explicit instruction can help learners to notice and internalize the form and meaning of phraseological units, and to use them more effectively in communication."³⁵ This can involve activities such as matching exercises, gap-filling exercises, and role-play activities, which help learners to practice using phraseological units in a range of contexts.
Furthermore, the use of technology can also be beneficial in facilitating the acquisition and processing of phraseological units. For example, online corpora can be used to provide learners with access to authentic examples of phraseological units in use, while computer-assisted language learning (CALL) software can provide learners with interactive exercises and feedback on the use of these units.
Language is a complex system of communication that involves various linguistic and pragmatic aspects. Linguistic aspects refer to the formal structure of language, including its syntax, grammar, and vocabulary. Pragmatic aspects, on the other hand, refer to the social and contextual factors that affect language use, such as speech acts, politeness, and conversational implicature. While these two aspects of language may seem distinct, they are closely interrelated and influence each other in many ways.
Linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language are interrelated because they both contribute to the creation of meaning in language. As stated by Thomas, "pragmatics is concerned with how language is used to convey meaning in context, and thus cannot be separated from linguistic meaning."³⁶ Linguistic meaning refers to the meaning that is encoded in the words and structure of a sentence, while pragmatic meaning refers to the meaning that is inferred from the context in which the sentence is used. Therefore, the interplay between linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language is crucial in the creation of meaning in language.
One example of how linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language are interrelated is the use of deixis. Deixis is the use of words that rely on the context in which they are used to convey meaning. For example, the word "here" can only be understood in relation to the speaker's location. As noted by Levinson, deixis is a pragmatic phenomenon that relies on the linguistic structure of language to create meaning. Levinson writes, "deictic expressions rely on the formal linguistic structure of language, but they are not themselves purely formal entities".³⁷ In other words, the use of deixis relies on the linguistic structure of language, but the meaning it conveys is determined by the context in which it is used.
Another example of the interplay between linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language is the use of speech acts. A speech act is a unit of language that is used to perform an action, such as making a request, giving an order, or expressing an apology. According to Searle, speech acts are both linguistic and pragmatic phenomena because they involve both the use of language and the social and contextual factors that affect language use. Searle writes, "a speech act is an act that a speaker performs by saying something, and the meaning of the speech act is determined by the rules of language and the context in which it is used".³⁸ Therefore, the use of speech acts relies on the linguistic structure of language, but the meaning it conveys is determined by the context in which it is used.
The interplay between linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language can be seen in the use of politeness strategies. Politeness strategies are used to mitigate the potential face-threatening acts that may arise in social interactions. As noted by Brown and Levinson , politeness strategies are both linguistic and pragmatic phenomena because they involve the use of language and the social and contextual factors that affect language use. Brown and Levinson write, "politeness strategies rely on the linguistic structure of language, but they are not themselves purely formal entities".³⁹ In other words, the use of politeness strategies relies on the linguistic structure of language, but the meaning it conveys is determined by the context in which it is used.
The interplay between linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language is a complex and nuanced phenomenon that influences our communication in a variety of ways. Understanding this interplay can help learners and users of a language to communicate more effectively and avoid miscommunication.
Linguistic aspects of language refer to the grammatical and structural elements of language, while pragmatic aspects of language refer to the social and contextual elements of language use, such as politeness, indirectness, and the appropriate use of speech acts. The interplay between these two aspects of language is important for effective communication because it affects how we use language in different social and professional contexts.
By understanding the interplay between linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language, learners can improve their ability to use language appropriately in a variety of social contexts. This includes understanding the social norms and conventions that govern language use. For example, understanding how to use polite language can help learners avoid being rude or confrontational, while understanding indirect language can help them communicate more effectively in situations where direct language might be inappropriate.
A better understanding of the interplay between linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language can also help users of a language to avoid miscommunication and misunderstandings. This includes being able to recognize and interpret subtle cues in language use, such as tone, intonation, and facial expressions. Understanding these cues can help users of a language to better interpret the meaning of a message and to respond appropriately.
In addition, a better understanding of the interplay between linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language can help users to develop more effective communication strategies. This includes the ability to adapt one's language use to the needs of the listener, such as using simpler language or more complex language depending on the listener's level of proficiency. By understanding the needs of the listener, users of a language can tailor their communication to ensure that their message is being effectively received.
Ultimately, a better understanding of the interplay between linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language can help learners and users of a language to communicate more effectively and successfully in a variety of social and professional contexts.
The interplay between linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language is a complex phenomenon that has significant implications for language learning, language teaching, and language use in various contexts. The relationship between the two is mutually influencing, and understanding this interplay is essential for effective communication in different settings.
Linguistic aspects of language refer to the rules of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary, whereas pragmatic aspects of language refer to the social, cultural, and contextual factors that influence the meaning and use of language. Understanding the interplay between these two aspects of language is vital for effective communication, especially in situations where cultural and linguistic differences may lead to misunderstandings.
Language learning is greatly affected by the interplay between linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language. Language learners not only need to acquire the necessary grammar and vocabulary, but they also need to understand the cultural and social norms that influence language use. According to Kasper, "the development of pragmatic competence is as crucial as the acquisition of linguistic competence in second language learning."⁴⁰ Thus, language learners need to be exposed to various language contexts that allow them to practice both their linguistic and pragmatic skills.
In language teaching, the interplay between linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language has significant implications for curriculum development, materials design, and classroom instruction. Teachers need to provide learners with authentic and meaningful input that exposes them to different language contexts, including both linguistic and pragmatic aspects. According to Olshtain, "the teacher's task is to provide learners with opportunities to practice the target language in its authentic forms, which includes exposure to authentic texts and contexts of use."⁴¹
The interplay between linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language is also essential for effective language use in different contexts. Language users need to be able to recognize and use language appropriately in various settings. According to Gass and Selinker, "the ability to use language in different contexts and situations is an essential part of communicative competence."⁴² Thus, language users need to understand the cultural and social norms that influence language use and be able to adapt their language use accordingly.
In conclusion, the interplay between linguistic and pragmatic aspects of language has significant implications for language learning, language teaching, and language use in different contexts. Understanding this interplay is crucial for effective communication, and language learners and users need to be exposed to various language contexts that allow them to practice both their linguistic and pragmatic skills. Teachers need to provide learners with authentic and meaningful input that exposes them to different language contexts, including both linguistic and pragmatic aspects. Finally, the ability to use language appropriately in different contexts and situations is an essential part of communicative competence, and language users need to be able to recognize and use language appropriately in various settings.