debt-debt swaps
(where banks holding the debt of one LDC exchange it for
the debt of another LDC),
debt-currency swaps
(where the debt denominated in
foreign currency is converted into domestic currency), and
debt-equity swaps
(where the debt is converted into the equity of public and private domestic enter-
prises). The main impetus of all these debt conversion schemes has been the recog-
nition that the true value of the sovereign debt is well below its face value.
As a result of their lending experience in Latin America, the Big Six have
withdrawn from certain countries and focused more of their international activities
in the United States. Moreover, the international activities of Canadian banking orga-
nizations are now regulated, primarily by the Office of the Superintendent of
Financial Institutions Canada (OSFI), created in 1987 to succeed two separate regu-
latory bodies: the Inspector General of Banks and the Department of Insurance. In
particular, in 1991, the OSFI asked the chartered banks to set up special reserves in
the amount of 35% 45% of their exposure to a number of LDCs.
The growth in international trade not only has encouraged Canadian banks to
open offices overseas but also has encouraged foreign banks to establish offices
in Canada. Foreign banks have been extremely successful in Canada. Over the
past 20 years, since the 1981 revision to the Bank Act, globally prominent foreign
banks have set up and expanded banking subsidiaries in Canada. Foreign banks
are a highly fragmented group and currently hold about 8% of total Canadian
bank assets, with HSBC Bank Canada (the former Hongkong and Shanghai
Banking Corp.) enjoying a national market share of over 3%. It should be noted,
however, that these institutions target specific groups, achieving a higher repre-
sentation within their target groups than their national share would suggest. For
example, HSBC, the largest of the Schedule II banks, enjoys a strong presence
and success in the Chinese communities of British Columbia and Ontario.
Foreign banks may enter the Canadian financial services industry as either
Schedule II or Schedule III banks. As already noted, Schedule II banks don t have to
be widely held if small. If, however, their equity capital exceeds $1 billion, then
at least 35% of it must be widely held. In the case that their equity capital exceeds
$5 billion, then the same widely held ownership rule applies as for Schedule I banks.
The major difference between Schedule II and Schedule III banks is that Schedule III
banks can branch directly into Canada, following authorization by the Minister of
Finance, whereas Schedule II banks can add branches to their initial branch only with
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