Investigating Social D y n a m i c s 323
of meta-analysis, which is a quantitative summary of findings across a variety of
studies that reveals the size and consistency of such empirical results. Across 3 2 2
separate meta-analyses, the overall result was that this large body of social psy-
chological research generated substantial effect sizes—that the power of social
situations is a reliable and robust effect.
This data set was reanalyzed to focus only on research relevant for under-
standing the social context variables and principles that are involved when ordi-
nary people engage in torture. The Princeton University researcher Susan Fiske
found 1 , 5 0 0 separate effect sizes that revealed the consistent and reliable impact
of situational variables on behavior. She concluded, "Social psychological evi-
dence emphasizes the power of the social context, in other words, the power of
the interpersonal situation. Social psychology has accumulated a century of
knowledge across a variety of studies about how people influence each other for
good or i l l . "
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L O O K I N G A H E A D T O A P P L E S , B A R R E L S , W H E E L E R S , A N D D E A L E R S Now the time has come to collect our analytical gear and move our journey to the
far-off foreign land of Iraq to try to understand an extraordinary phenomenon of
our times: the digitally documented abuses of Iraqis detained in the prison at Abu
Ghraib. Revelations of these violations against humanity moved out from that se-
cret dungeon in Tier 1A, that little shop of horrors, to reverberate around a
shocked world. How could this happen? Who was responsible? Why had pho-
tographs been taken that implicated the torturers in the act of committing their
crimes? These and more questions filled the media for months on end. The presi-
dent of the United States vowed "to get to the bottom of this." A host of politicians
and pundits knowingly proclaimed that it was all the work of a few "bad apples."
The abusers were nothing more than a band of sadistic "rogue soldiers."
Our plan is to reexamine what happened and how it happened. We are now
adequately prepared to contrast this standard dispositional analysis of identifying
the evil perpetrators, the "bad apples," in the otherwise presumably good barrel,
with our search for situational determinants—the nature of that bad barrel. We
will also review some of the conclusions from various independent investigations
into these abuses that will take us beyond situational factors to implicate the
System—military and political—in our explanatory mix.