2 3 8
The Lucifer Effect
oners and guards had returned to a more balanced emotional state following the
debriefing session, to reach levels comparable to their emotional conditions at the
start of the study. The relatively short duration of the negative impact of this in-
tense experience on the participants can be ascribed to three factors: First, these
youngsters all had a sound psychological and personal foundation to bounce
back to after the study ended. Second, the experience was unique to and con-
tained in that time, setting, costumes, and script, all of which could be left behind
as a package of their "SPE adventure" and not reactivated in the future. Third,
our detailed debriefing took the guards and prisoners off the hook for behaving
badly and identified the features of the situation that had influenced them.
Positive Consequences to the Participants
In the traditional accounts of the relative ethics of research, in order for any re-
search to be sanctioned it is necessary for the gain to science, medicine, and/or so-
ciety to outweigh the cost to the participants. Although such a gain-cost ratio
seems appropriate, I now want to challenge this method of accounting. The costs
to the participants ("subjects" in the days of the SPE) were real, immediate, and
often tangible. In contrast, whatever gains were anticipated when the study was
designed or approval given were merely probable and distant and perhaps might
never be realized. Much promising research does not yield significant results and
thus is not even published and circulated in the scientific community. Even signifi-
cant published findings may not translate into practice, and practice may not
prove feasible or practical when scaled up to the level of social benefits. On the
other hand, some basic research that had no obvious application when originally
conceived has turned out to yield important applications. For example, basic re-
search on the conditioning of the autonomic nervous system has led directly to
the use of biofeedback as a therapeutic aid in health c a r e .
1 0
Moreover, most re-
searchers have shown little interest or talent in the "social engineering" applica-
tions of their findings to personal and social problems. Taken together, these
criticisms say that the lofty "gain" side of the research ethical equation may not
be met either in principle or practice, while the pain part remains a net loss as well
as a gross loss to participants and society.
Also singularly missing from this ethical equation is concern for the net gain
to the participants. Do they benefit in some way from having been part of a given
research project? For instance, does their financial remuneration offset the dis-
tress they experience from taking part in medical research assessing aspects of
pain? Do people value the knowledge they accrue as research participants? Do
they learn something special about themselves from the research experience?
Adequate, detailed debriefing is essential to realize this secondary objective of
human subjects research. (For an example of how this can be achieved in one
of my experiments on induced psychopathology. see n o t e s .
1 1
) But such gains
cannot be assumed or hoped for: they must be demonstrated empirically as out-
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