situations matter. Social situations can have more profound effects on the behavior
and mental functioning of individuals, groups, and national leaders than we
might believe possible. Some situations can exert such powerful influence over us
2 1 2
The Lucifer Effect
that we can be led to behave in ways we would not, could not, predict was possible
in a d v a n c e .
1 6
Situational power is most salient in novel settings, those in which people can-
not call on previous guidelines for their new behavioral options. In such situa-
tions the usual reward structures are different and expectations are violated.
Under such circumstances, personality variables have little predictive utility be-
cause they depend on estimations of imagined future actions based on character-
istic past reactions in familiar situations—but rarely in the kind of new situation
currently being encountered, say by a new guard or prisoner.
Therefore, whenever we are trying to understand the cause of any puzzling,
unusual behavior, our own or that of others, we should start out with a situa-
tional analysis. We should yield to dispositional analyses (genes, personality
traits, personal pathologies, and so on) only when the situationally based detec-
tive work fails to make sense of the puzzle. My colleague Lee Ross adds that such
an approach invites us to practice "attributional charity." That means we start
not by blaming the actor for the deed but rather, being charitable, we first investi-
gate the scene for situational determinants of the act.
However, attributional charity is easier said than practiced because most of
us have a powerful mental bias—the "fundamental attribution error"—that pre-
vents such reasonable t h i n k i n g .
1 7
Societies that promote individualism, such as
the United States and many other Western nations, have come to believe that dis-
positions matter more than situations. We overemphasize personality in explain-
ing any behavior while concurrently underemphasizing situational influences.
After reading this book, I hope you will begin to notice how often you see this dual
principle in action in your own thinking and in decisions of others. Let's consider
next some of the features that make situations matter, as illustrated in our prison
study.
The Power of Rules to Shape Reality
Situational forces in the SPE combined a number of factors, none of which was
very dramatic alone but that together were powerful in their aggregation. One of
the key features was the power of rules. Rules are formal, simplified ways of con-
trolling informal complex behavior. They work by externalizing regulations, by
establishing what is necessary, acceptable, and rewarded and what is unaccept-
able and therefore punished. Over time, rules come to have an arbitrary life of
their own and the force of legal authority even when they are no longer relevant,
are vague, or change with the whims of the enforcers.
Our guards could justify most of the harm they did to the prisoners by refer-
encing "the Rules." Recall, for example, the agony the prisoners had to endure to
memorize the set of seventeen arbitrary rules that the guards and the warden had
invented. Consider also the misuse of Rule 2 about eating at mealtimes to punish
Clay-416 for refusing to eat his filthy sausages.
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