— K e n Whalen, ex-convict and p l a y w r i g h t
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In the SPE, time sense became distorted in many ways. For the prisoners, their
sleep cycle was disrupted by forced awakening for the counts; they were always
tired, and that exhaustion was amplified by the tedious exercises and menial work
regimes assigned to them. Their sense of time was also affected by the absence of
external signs of day and night and lack of clocks. (The absence of clocks is part
of the design strategy of gambling casinos to embed gamblers in an expanded
present by removing any references to time.) As noted in the last chapter, the pris-
oners magnified their focus on the awful present by talking about the immediate
situation and rarely about their past or future lives. Interestingly, after each of the
prisoners who was released early was gone, the remaining prisoners made virtu-
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The Lucifer Effect
ally no references to them. They were gone and forgotten, pushed out of immedi-
ate memory focus.
As for the staff, our time perspective also became distorted by the long shifts
we had to endure, the short sleep episodes, and the many different logistical and
tactical issues we had to deal with every day and night. I think that some of our
misjudgments and indecisions c a n be traced in part to our distorted time sense.
These experiences led to my need to understand how human behavior is influ-
enced by our sense of time perspective, the way we partition the flow of our expe-
riences into the temporal categories of past, present, and future. Using surveys,
interviews, experiments, and cross-cultural studies, I learned many new things
about time perspective that enabled me to develop a valid, reliable metric for as-
sessing individual differences in time perspective.
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The Zimbardo Time Perspec-
tive Inventory (ZTPI) is being used by researchers around the world to study a
host of important phenomena, such as decision-making biases, health issues,
stress, addiction, problem solving, environmental sustainability, and many more
"time-tagged" phenomena.
Most people's lives are controlled by their overuse of one time frame—past,
present, or future—and underreliance on the other frames, which they should
be using in a more flexible, balanced fashion depending on the demands of any
given situation. When there is work to be done, the discipline associated with
future orientation is needed. When we need to connect to family and friends,
the rooted positive past should be called upon. When we want to enjoy life's
sensual pleasures and seek new adventures, a present orientation best enables
us to do so. Many factors contribute to biasing people toward being excessively
present-oriented—either hedonistic or fatalistic—excessively future-oriented, or
excessively past-oriented—in either positive or negative focus. Among those fac-
tors are cultural influences, education, religion, social class, family modeling, and
personal experiences. The SPE made it obvious that time perspective was not
merely a personal trait or an outcome measure but could be altered by experi-
ences in situations that expanded or contracted it.
When studying institutions, it also becomes apparent that time perspective
plays a powerful, hidden role in shaping the minds of the those who become "in-
stitutionalized," whether in prisons, homes for the aged, or chronic care hospi-
tals. Endless routines and undifferentiated daily activities create a seeming
circularity of time—it just flows on, undivided into meaningful linear units but
creeping onward as if it were an ant's journey on a Môbius strip of life. Among his
insights into the meaning of imprisonment in Soledad Brother, George Jackson re-
flects on time and its distortion:
The Time slips away from me There is no rest from it even at night
The days, even the weeks lapse one into the other, endlessly into one an-
other. Each day that comes and goes is exactly like the one that went
before.
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