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semanticism
(pragmatics inside semantics – Searle),
pragmaticism
(semantics inside pragmatics – Austin) and
complementarism
(semantics and
pragmatics complement each other, but are otherwise independent areas of
research – Leech).
2. Indirect Meaning of the Utterance
When there is a mismatch between the expressed meaning and the implied
meaning we deal with indirectness. Indirectness is a universal phenomenon: it
occurs in all natural languages.
There can be three types of indirect meanings conveyed by a sentence:
presupposition, implication and reference.
Presupposition
Presupposition
is defined as an indirect proposition that can be inferred
from the sentence.
The notion of presupposition has been borrowed from mathematical logic,
according to which sentence S presupposes sentence S’ if sentence S’ can be
inferred from sentence S and negating sentence S does not affect inferability of S’.
Sentence S’ must be true, otherwise sentence S cannot be true.
e.g.
John knows that Mary got married. John does not know that Mary got
married.
presupposition: Mary got married.
Do you want to do it again?
presupposition: You have done it already, at least once.
My wife is pregnant.
presupposition: The speaker has a wife.
In linguistics, presupposition is a background belief, relating to an utterance,
that must be mutually known or assumed by the speaker and addressee for the
utterance to be considered appropriate in context and will generally remain a
necessary assumption whether the utterance is placed in the form of an assertion,
denial, or question. Presupposition has to do with informational status. The
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information contained in a presupposition is backgrounded, taken for granted,
presented as something that is not currently an issue.
It is important to remember that
negation
of an expression does not change
its presuppositions:
I want to do it again
and
I don't want to do it again
both mean
that the subject has done it already one or more times;
My wife is pregnant
and
My
wife is not pregnant
both mean that the subject has a wife. In this respect,
presupposition is distinguished from
implication
.
So, presupposition as a linguistic phenomenon is characterized by two
features, that is,
1) it can be inferred from the sentence;
2) it does not depend on negation or questioning.
Another feature characteristic of presupposition is pragmaticism, that is, the
content of presupposition is pragmatic since presupposition reflects the author’s
attitude towards what is stated or asked in the sentence.
So, presupposition possesses the following features: indirectness,
inferability, independence of negation and pragmaticism of contents. Since the first
three features do not allow any differentiation, it seems logical to classify
presuppositions according to their pragmatic contents.
Factive presupposition (factiveness)
e.g.
John knows that Mary got married. John thinks that Mary got married
.
Despite the identical external structure, semantically the two sentences are
different. The difference lies in the author’s attitude towards what is said in the
clause dependent on the predicate. In the first case, the author regards the
proposition
Mary got married
as a fact, which cannot be said about the proposition
in the second sentence. The presuppositional contents contained in these two
sentences is called factive presupposition, or factiveness. Predicates forming this
type of presupposition are referred to as factive as well as words or word
combinations expressing such predicates.
Factive words include such verbs as
to admit, to amuse, to bother, to
confess, to discover, to ignore, know, to realise, to regret, etc.,
adjectives
glad,
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exciting, important, lucky, proud, regrettable, remarkable.
The verbs
to assume, to
believe, to imagine, to seem, to think
and adjectives
certain, eager, likely, possible,
sure
are non-factive.
Factiveness as any other type of presupposition is important in the study of
English syntax as a factor influencing the syntactic form of the sentence and
determining the construction’s transformation potential. For example, Complex
Object with the infinitive can be used only after non-factive verbs of mental
activity.
Emotiveness
An emotive predicate expresses a subject emotional attitude of the author
towards what is being said that can be defined as corresponding or non-
corresponding to the speaker’s desires and expectations.
e.g.
John knows that Mary got married. John regrets that Mary got married.
Emotive verbs include such verbs as
to bother, to regret, to resent, to dislike,
to hate, etc.
Emotive predicates have some syntactic peculiarities that are absent in non-
emotive ones, for example, emotive verbs can be modified by the adverb
much
while non-emotive verbs cannot.
So, the notion of presupposition allows systematizing and explaining some
semantic and syntactic peculiarities.
Implication and Inference
Presupposition is not the only type of indirect sentence meaning. Consider
the following example:
e.g. She somehow contrived to pass the exam.
The implied meaning of the sentence is that she passed the exam. However,
it differs from presupposition as it is negation-sensitive. An indirect proposition
inferred from the original utterance and dependent on negation is called
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