Languages for intercultural communication and education


Culture and Written Genres



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Culture and Written Genres
This chapter moves from the discussion of conversational English to
address issues in reading and writing. Topics addressed include:

Culture, genre and English for Specific Purposes (ESP).

The meanings of ‘genre’ in different disciplines.

The concept of the ‘discourse community’.

Shifting from genre to genre.

Genre in the intercultural classroom.

Tasks for reading and writing generic discourse.
English for General and Specific Purposes
It is no accident that a concern for culture in ELT has been found mostly
in the teaching of English as a second language (ESL, that is, the teaching of
English to immigrants in anglophone countries) and English for specific
purposes, especially English for academic purposes (EAP). In ESL and EAP
contexts, teachers must deal with the fact that their learners have to learn
more than the language of the target culture. In ESL courses, the students
learn English as part of a process of acculturation, or integration into the
host culture (Roberts
et al
., 1992), while in EAP courses, the process of
learning English has increasingly been seen as part of the wider process of
socialisation into a new academic community (see, for example, Swales,
1990). In these contexts, teachers and students have had to face more
urgently than ‘general’ English teachers the issue of relating language use
to patterns of cultural beliefs and expectations. In this chapter, the focus is
on exploring writing from a cultural and intercultural perspective. The
examples are taken mainly from scientific writing, though the principles
can be applied to a more diverse range of genres.
It might not be immediately apparent why there should be an
intercultural component to ESP teaching, particularly in the area of scien-
tific English. Scientific and professional contexts might indeed be viewed
as arenas in which participants primarily transfer information from one to
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Intercultural Approaches to ELT
Culture and Written Genres
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another. Certainly, in the 1970s, when ESP experienced a remarkable
growth in courses and textbooks, it seemed that all English teachers needed
to do was to explain how particular surface features expressed universal
processes. Contents of ESP textbooks of the 1970s and early 1980s focus on
expressions used to articulate notions such as ‘cyclical and linear pro-
cesses’, ‘structures of classification’, and ‘defining technical terms’. The
assumption that scientific English is the surface manifestation of universal
procedures underlies H.G. Widdowson and J.P.B. Allen’s approach to
teaching scientific English in higher education in their series
English in
Focus
(Widdowson & Allen, 1974, reprinted in Swales, 1985: 75):
We will suppose that we are to design an English course for students of
science in the first year of higher education. We make two basic
assumptions. Firstly, we assume that in spite of the shortcomings of
secondary school English teaching, the students have acquired consid-
erable dormant competence in the manipulation of the language
system. Secondly, we assume that they already have knowledge of
basic science. Hitherto, these two kinds of knowledge have existed in
separation: our task is to relate them.
The
English in Focus
series was popular and influential in the 1970s, and
Widdowson is, of course, regarded as one of the main theorists of a commu-
nicative methodology. It is interesting to note that his concern with the
communication of ‘basic science’ implies that it is unaffected by matters of
cultural relativity: the scientific culture of the L2 learners is regarded as
identical to that of their native-speaker science teachers. More precisely,
the communicative activities engaged in by scientists are regarded as
constant across cultures and levels of professional qualification. More
recent work in the philosophy, sociology and discourse analysis of scien-
tific texts has called this assumption into question. Any communicative
activity implies a cultural context, which must be drawn upon to make
sense of it: if the cultural context is changed, then the meaning of the com-
munication changes too. This is true even of scientific and professional
English.
Connor (1996) surveys developments in the discipline of contrastive
rhetoric in the last three decades of the 20th century, and cites various
studies of cultural difference in scientific and professional writing. There
are, for example, many differences in the degree of explicitness and
certainty with which a suggestion or a claim to knowledge is expressed
across cultures. Connor reports a study that argues that Japanese business
managers are more tentative when making recommendations than their
American counterparts (Connor, 1988, 1996: 141–2). Other writers suggest
that Anglo-American scientists are more tentative than their continental

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