Jizzakh state pedogogical university named after abdulla kadiri foreign languages faculty

1.1 Overview of theories related to teaching speaking skills to young learners:
The Input Hypothesis is a theory proposed by linguist StephenKrashen ⁸as part of his theory of second language acquisition. According to the Input Hypothesis, language learners acquire language by being exposed to language input that is slightly beyond their current level of proficiency, or what Krashen calls "comprehensible input."The input hypothesis, also famous for the monitor model, is a group of five hypotheses of second-language acquisition developed by the linguist Stephen Krashen⁹ in the 1970s and 1980s. Krashen originally formulated the input hypothesis as just one of the five hypotheses, but over time the term has come to refer to the five hypotheses as a group. The hypotheses are the input hypothesis, the acquisition–learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis and the affective filter hypothesis. The input hypothesis was first published in 1977.The hypotheses put primary importance on the comprehensible input (CI) that language learners are exposed to. Understanding spoken and written language input is seen as the only mechanism that results in the increase of underlying linguistic competence, and language output is not seen as having any effect on learners' ability. Furthermore, Krashen claimed that linguistic competence is only advanced when language is subconsciously acquired, and that conscious learning cannot be used as a source of spontaneous language production. Finally, learning is seen to be heavily dependent on the mood of the learner, with learning being impaired if the learner is under stress or does not want to learn the language. Krashen's hypotheses have been influential in language education, particularly in the United States, but have received criticism from some academics. Two of the main criticisms state that the hypotheses are untestable, and that they assume a degree of separation between acquisition and learning that has not been proven to exist.In the context of speaking, the Input Hypothesis suggests that language learners improve their speaking ability by listening to and understanding language input that is slightly above their current level of proficiency. As learners are exposed to more and more input, they gradually develop their ability to produce language that is more complex and accurate.Krashen argues that the key to successful language acquisition is not explicit instruction or correction, but rather exposure to meaningful language input that is comprehensible and compelling. Therefore, in the context of speaking, learners should focus on listening and understanding as much language input as possible in order to improve their speaking ability over time.
The input hypothesis, also known as the monitor model, is a group of five hypotheses about second language acquisition developed by linguist Stephen Krashen in the 1970s and 1980s. Krashen originally formulated the input hypothesis as one of five hypotheses, but over time the term began to refer to the five hypotheses as a group. The hypotheses are the input hypothesis, the acquisition-learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis. The input hypothesis was first published in 1977.
Hypotheses prioritize the comprehensible input (CI) encountered by language learners. Comprehension of spoken and written language is seen as the only mechanism leading to the improvement of basic linguistic competence, and language output has no bearing on students' abilities. In addition, Krashen emphasized that linguistic competence develops only when language is acquired unconsciously, and that conscious learning cannot be used as a source of spontaneous language production. Finally, learning is considered highly dependent on the student's mood, and learning will suffer if the student is stressed or unwilling to learn the language.
Krashen's hypotheses have influenced language education, especially in the United States, but have been criticized by some scholars. Two main criticisms argue that the hypotheses are untestable and that they propose a separation between acquisition and learning that is unproven.
1.The Interactionist Theory: This theory emphasizes the importance of social interaction and communication in language learning.
Interaction theory refers to a set of theoretical perspectives that emphasize the importance of social interaction in shaping human behavior and experience. At its core, interaction theory posits that people construct their social reality through their interactions with others, and that social structures emerge and are maintained through ongoing social interactions.
One of the key concepts in interaction theory is the idea of social roles. Social roles refer to the set of expectations and behaviors associated with a particular position or status in society. For example, a teacher is expected to behave in certain ways in the classroom, while a student is expected to behave differently. These roles are constructed and maintained through social interaction, and they help to shape how people understand themselves and others.
Another important concept in interaction theory is the idea of symbolic interactionism. Symbolic interactionism posits that people use symbols (such as language and gestures) to communicate with each other and to create meaning. In other words, people interpret and respond to the symbols that others use, and these interpretations shape their behavior and experience.
Overall, interaction theory provides a framework for understanding how social structures and roles are constructed and maintained through ongoing social interaction. It emphasizes the importance of communication and symbolic interaction in shaping human behavior and experience.
2.The sociocultural theory:
Sociocultural theory is a theory of learning and development that emphasizes the importance of social and cultural factors in shaping human cognition and behavior. In the context of speaking, sociocultural theory suggests that language learning and use are deeply embedded in social and cultural practices, and that the ability to speak effectively depends on a learner's ability to negotiate and navigate social interactions and cultural norms.
According to sociocultural theory, language learning is a process of participation in social activities and practices, where learners engage in communicative interactions with others in order to develop their speaking skills. Through these interactions, learners not only acquire linguistic knowledge but also develop their understanding of how language is used in different social contexts and for different purposes.
Sociocultural theory also emphasizes the role of feedback and scaffolding in language learning. Learners need feedback from more experienced speakers in order to develop their speaking skills, and this feedback can take many forms, including explicit instruction, modeling, and correction. Additionally, learners need scaffolding, or support, in order to participate in more complex communicative activities. This scaffolding can come from peers, teachers, or more experienced speakers.
Overall, sociocultural theory suggests that speaking proficiency is not simply a matter of acquiring linguistic knowledge, but rather a complex process that involves social and cultural factors, feedback, and scaffolding. By participating in social activities and engaging in communicative interactions, learners can develop their speaking skills and become more proficient speakers.
The zone of proximal development (ZPD): is a concept in sociocultural theory that refers to the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with the guidance and support of a more experienced speaker. In the context of speaking, the ZPD refers to the range of speaking tasks that a learner can perform with help from a more experienced speaker or teacher.
Psychologist Lev Vygotsky established this theory of learning, believing that parents, teachers, peers, caregivers, and society at large influences an individual’s cognitive development. Learning at its root involves interacting with others around you. Vygotsky asserted that learning was a cultural phenomenon, with children from difrerent cultures embracing different styles of learning
According to Vygotsky's ¹⁰theory, the ZPD is the area where learning and development occur most effectively. In the context of speaking, this means that learners can improve their speaking abilities by engaging in tasks that are just beyond their current level of proficiency, but still within their ZPD¹¹. These tasks should be challenging enough to push learners to expand their skills, but not so difficult that they become frustrated and disengaged. The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and theory in cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly what has become known as sociocultural theory.
Vygotsky’s¹² sociocultural theory views human development as a socially mediated process in which children acquire cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society and his theory comprises concepts such as culture-specific tools, private speech, and the Zone of Proximal Development.Vygotsky’s theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of “making meaning.”Unlike Piaget’s notion that children’s development must necessarily precede their learning, Vygotsky argued, “learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function” (1978, p. 90). In other words, social learning precedes development.
For example, a learner who is just beginning to learn a new language may struggle to hold a conversation with a native speaker. However, if the learner is given support and guidance by a more experienced speaker, they may be able to engage in a simple conversation by asking and answering basic questions. This task would be within the learner's ZPD, as it is slightly beyond their current level of proficiency but still within their reach with some assistance.Overall, the ZPD is an important concept in speaking because it emphasizes the importance of providing learners with appropriate levels of support and challenge in order to promote their speaking development. By identifying tasks that are within a learner's ZPD, teachers and language learners can work together to improve speaking proficiency and promote language learning.
3.The affective filter hypothesis:
The Affective Filter Hypothesis is a theory in second language acquisition that proposes that learners' emotional states can have an effect on their ability to acquire a second language. According to this theory, when learners are experiencing negative emotions such as anxiety, low self-esteem, or frustration, it raises a "filter" that hinders their ability to acquire the language. Conversely, when learners are feeling positive emotions such as confidence, motivation, or interest, the filter is lowered, and they are more receptive to language input.
In the context of speaking, the affective filter hypothesis suggests that learners who are feeling anxious, nervous, or self-conscious may struggle to produce accurate and fluent speech. These negative emotions can lead to performance anxiety, causing the learner to focus more on their own mistakes and less on the language they are trying to produce. On the other hand, learners who are feeling confident and motivated are more likely to take risks and experiment with the language, which can lead to more successful language acquisition and improved speaking skills.
To mitigate the negative effects of the affective filter, language teachers can create a supportive and positive learning environment that encourages learners to take risks and make mistakes without fear of judgment or criticism. Additionally, they can use techniques such as role-playing, games, and other interactive activities to help learners build confidence and reduce anxiety.
This theory suggests that learners' emotional states, such as anxiety or motivation, can affect their language acquisition.
The affective filter hypothesis is a theory in second language acquisition that suggests that learners' emotional states can have an impact on their ability to acquire a new language. According to this hypothesis, if a learner is experiencing negative emotions such as anxiety or stress, their "affective filter" is raised, which can impede language acquisition.
The affective filter hypothesis was first proposed by linguist Stephen Krashen in the 1980s as part of his theory of second language acquisition. Krashen argued that language acquisition is most successful when learners are in a relaxed and comfortable state of mind, and that negative emotions can interfere with the language acquisition process.
According to the affective filter hypothesis, factors such as fear of making mistakes, self-consciousness, and lack of self-esteem can all contribute to a raised affective filter. On the other hand, positive emotions such as motivation, curiosity, and a desire to communicate can lower the affective filter and facilitate language acquisition.The affective filter hypothesis has been influential in shaping language teaching practices, with many language educators emphasizing the importance of creating a supportive and positive learning environment to help learners lower their affective filter and improve their language acquisition.
The Multiple Intelligences theory, developed by Howard Gardner, proposes that intelligence is not a single, fixed entity, but rather a collection of distinct abilities or "intelligences" that are manifested in different ways in different individuals. According to this theory, there are many different types of intelligence, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligence.
In the context of speaking, the Multiple Intelligences theory suggests that learners may have different strengths and weaknesses in different areas of language use. For example, learners with high linguistic intelligence may excel at understanding and producing grammatically correct sentences and using a wide range of vocabulary, while learners with high interpersonal intelligence may be skilled at using language to communicate effectively and build relationships with others.
To take advantage of the diversity of learners' intelligences, language teachers can use a variety of teaching strategies that appeal to different types of intelligence. For example:
1. Linguistic intelligence: the ability to use language effectively, both in spoken and written form.
2. Logical-mathematical intelligence: the ability to reason logically and solve mathematical problems.
3. Spatial intelligence: the ability to think in three dimensions and visualize spatial relationships.
4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: the ability to control and coordinate one's body movements and handle objects skillfully.
5. Musical intelligence: the ability to perceive, create, and understand music.
6. Interpersonal intelligence: the ability to understand and interact effectively with other people.
7. Intrapersonal intelligence: the ability to understand oneself and one's own thoughts and feelings.
8. Naturalistic intelligence: the ability to recognize and categorize natural objects and phenomena.
According to Gardner, each person has a unique combination of these intelligences, and different individuals may excel in different areas. The theory of multiple intelligences has been influential in education, with many educators using a variety of teaching strategies that target different types of intelligence in order to better engage students and support their learning.
The cognitive load theory: This theory suggests that learners have limited working memory capacity, and that teaching should minimize cognitive load in order to facilitate learning.
John Sweller¹³ is the opponent of cognitive theory who describes the human cognitive archteecture, and the need to apply sound instructional design principles based on our knowledge of the brain and memory. Sweller first describes the different types of memory, and how both are interrelated, because schemas held in long-term memory, acting as a “central executive”, directly affect the manner in which information is synthesized in working memory. Sweller then explains that in the absence of schemas, instructional guidance must provide a substitute for learners to develop either own schemas.
Cognitive load refers to the total amount of mental effort being used in the working memory. Cognitive load theory was developed out of the study of problem solving by John sweller in the late 1980s. Sweller argued that instructional design can be used to reduce cognitive load in learners. Cognitive load theory differentiates cognitive load into three types: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane.
Intrinsic cognitive load is the effort associated with a specific topic. Extraneous cognitive load refers to the way information or tasks are presented to a learner. And, germane cognitive load refers to the work put into creating a permanent store of knowledge, or a schema.
High cognitive load in the elderly has been shown to affect their center of balance. With increased distractions and cell phone use students are more prone to experiencing high cognitive load which can reduce academic success. Children have less general knowledge than adults which increases their cognitive load. Recent theoretical advances include the incorporation of embodied cognition in order to predict the cognitive load resulting from embodied interactions.
According to the cognitive load theory, there are three types of cognitive load that can affect learning:
1. Intrinsic cognitive load: This is the inherent complexity of the material being learned. Some topics or concepts are inherently more complex than others, which can increase the cognitive load on the learner.
2. Extraneous cognitive load: This refers to any additional cognitive demands that are not directly related to the learning task, such as distractions or irrelevant information.
3. Germane cognitive load: This is the cognitive effort required to process and organize new information in working memory so that it can be effectively transferred to long-term memory
The cognitive load theory suggests that learning is most effective when the cognitive load is optimized, meaning that the intrinsic cognitive load is manageable, the extraneous cognitive load is minimized, and the germane cognitive load is maximized. To achieve this, instructional designers can use strategies such as reducing extraneous cognitive load by simplifying instructional materials, providing clear explanations and examples, and breaking down complex tasks into smaller steps. They can also increase germane cognitive load by encouraging learners to actively engage with the material through activities such as practice exercises, problem-solving, and group discussions.
Effects of heavy cognitive load I is a heavy cognitive load typically creates error or some kind of interference in the task at hand. A heavy cognitive load can also increase stereotyping. Stereotyping is an extension of the Fundamental Attribution Error which also increases in frequency with heavier cognitive load. The notions of cognitive load and arousal contribute to the "Overload Hypothesis"¹⁴ explanation of social facilitation: in the presence of an audience, subjects tend to perform worse in subjectively complex tasks (whereas they tend to excel in subjectively easy tasks). See also: audience effect and drive theory.
Elderly
The danger of heavy cognitive load is seen in the elderly population. Aging can cause declines in the efficiency of working memory which can contribute to higher cognitive load. The relationship between heavy cognitive load and control of center of mass are heavily correlated in the elderly population. As cognitive load increases, the sway in center of mass in elderly individuals increases. Another study examined the relationship between body sway and cognitive function and their relationship during multitasking and found disturbances in balance led to a decrease in performance on the cognitive task. Heavy cognitive load can disturb balance in elderly people. Conversely, an increasing demand for balance can increase cognitive load.
Students
With the widespread acceptance of laptops in the classroom an increasing cognitive load while in school is a major concern. With the use of Facebook and other social forms of communication, adding multiple tasks is hurting students performance in the classroom. When many cognitive resources are available, the probability of switching from one task to another is high and does not lead to optimal switching behavior. Both students who were heavy Facebook users and students who sat nearby those who were heavy Facebook users performed poorly and resulted in lower GPA.
Children
The components of working memory as proposed by British psychologists, Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch, are in place at 6 years of age. However, there is a clear difference between adult and child knowledge. These differences are due to developmental increases in processing efficiency. Children lack general knowledge, and this is what creates increased cognitive load in children. Children in impoverished families often experience even higher cognitive load in learning environments than those in middle-class families. These children do not hear, talk, or learn about schooling concepts because their parents often do not have formal education. When it comes to learning, their lack of experience with numbers, words, and concepts increases their cognitive load.
As children grow older they develop superior basic processes and capacities. They also develop metacognition, which helps them to understand their own cognitive activities. Lastly, they gain greater content knowledge through their experiences. These elements help reduce cognitive load in children as they develop.
Gesturing is a technique children use to reduce cognitive load while speaking. By gesturing, they can free up working memory for other tasks. Pointing allows a child to use the object they are pointing at as the best representation of it, which means they do not have to hold this representation in their working memory, thereby reducing their cognitive load. Additionally, gesturing about an object that is absent reduces the difficulty of having to picture it in their mind.
The noticing hypothesis: This theory suggests that learners must consciously notice language features in order to acquire them. The Noticing Hypothesis is a theory in second language acquisition that suggests that language learners must first "notice" linguistic features in order to acquire them. According to this theory, if a learner does not initially notice a particular feature of the language being used, they will not be able to acquire it. This means that the learner must consciously attend to and recognize the linguistic feature in context before they can begin to acquire it.
The Noticing Hypothesis was proposed by Richard Schmidt in 1990 as an alternative to traditional behaviorist theories of language acquisition. Schmidt argued that language learners are not passive recipients of input, but active participants who selectively attend to certain features of the language they are exposed to.
The Noticing Hypothesis has been supported by research that shows that learners who are explicitly directed to notice a particular feature of the language are more likely to acquire it. However, the hypothesis has also been criticized for oversimplifying the complex process of language acquisition and for not fully accounting for the role of implicit learning.
The output hypothesis: This theory suggests that language acquisition is facilitated by learners' attempts to produce language output.
The Output Hypothesis is a theory in second language acquisition that suggests that language learners improve their proficiency by actively producing language, rather than simply by passively receiving input. The hypothesis was proposed by Merrill Swain in 1985, and it has been influential in shaping language teaching and learning practices.
According to the Output Hypothesis, language learners can improve their proficiency by engaging in activities that require them to produce language, such as speaking or writing. Through these activities, learners are able to test and refine their language knowledge, notice gaps in their understanding, and receive feedback from others. By producing language, learners are also able to develop their ability to convey meaning, organize their thoughts, and use the language in a more natural and effective way.
The Output Hypothesis suggests that output activities should be meaning-focused and communicative, rather than purely mechanical or repetitive. Learners should be encouraged to express their ideas, interact with others, and use the language in a way that is relevant to their needs and interests. In addition, learners should be provided with opportunities to receive feedback on their output, either from a teacher or from peers.
The Output Hypothesis has received support from research that has shown that learners who engage in output activities tend to improve their proficiency more quickly than those who do not. However, the hypothesis has also been criticized for oversimplifying the complex process of language acquisition and for not fully accounting for the role of input in language learning.