Ingliz tili I fakulteti

"Land ownership was divided into several categories:

• the state of the land (padshah)- were cultivated by farmers, and the harvest in the form of a tax went to the state budget. Tax collections from state lands were the main source of remuneration for the service of the secular, spiritual, and military nomadic nobility;

• privately owned land and land ownership and irrigation canals belonging to private people.

* suyurgal-conditional grant of land to members of the ruling dynasty, major military leaders and figures with the granting of tax immunity and the right to manage the granted territory. At the same time, the holder of suyurgal was obliged to pay a certain share of the tax fee - kharaja-to the state budget.

* tankho-conditional land ownership (it has been spreading since the XVI century). The recipient of the tankho was not the owner, but used the land tax from the peasants;

* Mulk lands - (possessions exempt from duty) - these lands were considered free, inherited, sold and bought. The main part of the Mulk lands was the property of large landowners, as well as part of the clergy. Part of the Mulk lands could also belong to farmers. Their number was not large, and further many of them were forced to sell their plots to large landowners;

• there were also lands that belonged to rural communities. In many places remnants of the rural communities preserved further;

* Vakf lands - lands bequeathed by someone to a madrasah, mosque or cemetery. The owners of such lands were sheikhs and Ishan".

However, Feudal strife among the Sheibanids again intensified, which led to the establishment of the second dynasty of the Uzbeks – Ashtarkhanids (Janids) in the early XVII century. At the head of the state was the Khan. According to the established rule, sultans and tribal elders elected the oldest representative of the Genghisid family as Khan. In practice, however, this rule was rarely observed. The one who had the most support among the nobles usually came to power. Traditionally, the election of the Khan was accompanied by raising the elected person on white felt. At the same time, the four corners of the felt were raised by four people from the most influential representatives of the Khan's family, noble emirs and clergy.

The highest state rank was considered a divan (the word divan is also used in the meaning of “State”) The class of high officials of the khanate-divans was headed by Divanbegi the great divan-head of the state chancery and finance.

A large role belonged to kukaltash (lit. Foster brother), who was in charge of receiving information from all over the state about friends and enemies of the state.

Kushbegi – disposed of hunting equipment

Mushrif – in charge of tax collection

Mirshab – chief of the night guard

Dadho – person receiving complaints from the public

Ulamo – clergy

Sayyid – clergy who considered themselves descendants of Muhammad

Khoja – descendants of the four caliphs

Cozi – the judge

Thus, the period of the XVII century and the first half of the XVIII century was a period of domination in Central Asia by the Uzbek Ashtarkhanid dynasty is characterized by the completion of the transition from a centralized state to three independent States (the Emirate of Bukhara, Khiva and Kokand khanates).

Relatively stable was in Bukhara, the power of Imamkuli (1611-1642) and Subalkali (1680-1702). Arbitrariness of the rulers, new taxes led to the decline of the economy. Most people find themselves in a difficult economic situation. This caused troubles, and antifeudal demonstrations in the province became a frequent occurrence.

The Iranian rulers, taking advantage of the difficult political situation, undertook a new invasion of Central Asia. The Bukharans ' resistance to the Iranian aggression was led by Muhammad Rakhimbiy, who in 1753, after successfully repelling the enemy's onslaught, declared himself as Emir. Since he was not a member of the Khan's family, he succeeded in renaming the Bukhara khanate into an Emirate, and declared himself Emir (sole ruler). He simultaneously became the founder of the Mangit dynasty of Uzbeks. After the death Rahimia Emir was his uncle Danielli, who ruled for almost thirty years. Under his son Shahmurad, the struggle against the fragmentation of the state continued.

The Khorezm oasis, located in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya, is one of the ancient centers of agricultural culture. At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries, the oasis was at the center of the desires of Sheibanikhan and the Iranian Shah Ismail. The Iranians captured Khorezm. After a short reign of Iranians in 1511, Khorezm again became an independent state. Formed the khanate of Khiva, headed by Albersheim. However, the Sheibanids who have established themselves in Bukhara make repeated attempts to conquer Khorezm. Wars occured frequently and with varying degrees of success. A relative lull comes to the Khiva khanate during the reign of Abulgazikhan (1643-1663). The stabilization of the situation somewhat improved the situation of the population, and the rulers also began to pay attention to cultural and educational issues.

However, Khiva was not able to completely overcome the opposition of Turkmen, Kalmyk and others neighboring tribes that often raided the Khorezm possessions. Bukhara often interfered in the affairs of Khiva. In 1703 the khanate of Khiva establishes ties with Russia. Further, feudal feuds within the khanate continued, and the actual rule of Khiva gradually passes to the dynasty of the Kungrad tribe led by Ali Inak. This happened in 1770. Kungrad residents actively fought for the unification of all districts of Khorezm into a single state. During the reign of Muhammad Rahim I (1806-1825), the khanate's independence was significantly strengthened, its borders expanded, the country's socio-economic and political situation became relatively stable, and tax reform was carried out.

At the beginning of the XVIII century the Ferghana valley left the subordination of the Emirate of Bukhara, creating an independence. The Kokand khanate was created on the initiative of Shahrukhbiy from the Uzbek Ming tribe in 1710. It significantly expands its possessions in a short period of time, conquering Tashkent, Chimkent, Khojent and other cities and districts.

The years of Norbutabius ' reign (1770-1800) The Kokand khanate became a period of strengthening of Palace intrigues, opposition of local rulers among themselves under Umarkhan and his son Alikhan (the first half of the XIX century). The Kokand khanate significantly strengthens its position. However, the deterioration of relations with the Emirate of Bukhara and miscalculations in the khanate itself led to tragic consequences in Kokand.

The form of state government in all three khanates was feudal-monarchical. The system of government in the khanates was based on the monarchy of the rulers. The throne was usually inherited. The khans were unconditionally subordinated to the Executive power (Kushbegi-first Ministers), which was based on a large official apparatus – the Diwan and local khokims, who also in their majority were related to the khans. Great importance was attached to punitive and Supervisory bodies, and cases of arbitrariness of local authorities were not uncommon. The ruling circles often used certain provisions of Islam for their own selfish purposes.

Socio-economic life in the khanates was uneven, often withdrawn. There was some growth and development of crafts, and commodity-money relations developed in the cities. Work was underway to restore the Zarafshan irrigation system. Bukhara and Kokand become centers of cotton production. Forms of land ownership were state, private, and vakf lands that belonged to the clergy. The population suffered from many taxes.

The difficult socio-economic situation of the population of all three khanates is primarily due to the numerous discords within and between the khanates, which resulted in bloodshed. Although the rulers of the region were dynasties of related tribes, they often lacked the statesmanship to find a mutually acceptable approach. Often, ambition, conceit, arrogance, and envy took over. All this led to significant isolation of the khanates from the outside world, economic and political isolation. Even trade caravans of neighboring countries passed through the territory of Central Asia, which reduced the socio-economic significance of the Great silk road. The famous writer Abdullah Kadyri called these years as "A dark period".

The history of the cultural life of the region reflects the entire complex, full of political and social upheavals that these khanates have passed through. Therefore, there were downs in cultural development. But in general, cultural traditions did not stop, they were somewhat enriched by new achievements in literature, architecture, art and a number of branches of science.

So, in the XVI century Muhammad Salih created a historical chronicle "Shaibaninameh" in verse. In Khiva, Abulgazikhan, Munis, Ogakhi, Baeni, then Feruz created noteworthy historical and literary works, and Kamil Khorezmi – an original treatise on music. The Bukhara ruler of the astrological Subangular wrote a book about the nature of the lunar phases and Donish Bukhari has created a work on the observation of the stars. Here were created original historical works of M. Balkhi, H. Bukhari and others. In the Ferghana valley, Mashrab, Gulkhani, Makhmur and others in their satirical works scourged lies, deception, fraud, and exalted honest and righteous work.

Since ancient times in Central Asia, there were customs to teach girls at home. The so-called "Tineyi" taught girls usually at the home of one of the students. Moreover, they taught not just only literacy, but also writing poetry, languages, home economics and spirituality. There were about three dozen such schools in Kokand. Famous poets and public figures Jakhon-otin uwaysi, Nodirabegim, Dilshod Barno and etc.

One more detail. Despite the "cool" relations between the rulers of the khanates, the relations of ordinary people in all three States were normal, natural and not hostile. Many of them were fluent in Uzbek, Tajik and other languages of the region, and were often in friendly and kindred relations.

Thus, the period of the Sheibanids and Ashtarkhanids in Central Asia was in a new stage in the history of the region. Its collapse into three khanates was the result of feudal relations, the confrontation of various dynasties in the struggle for power, which led to territorial fragmentation, economic and political weakening. All this combined allowed and led to the conquest of Central Asia by Russian Tsarist.

It is known that the period after the XVI century became for many European countries the years of intellectual development and Renaissance. And the Central Asian States, due to the above socio-political circumstances found themselves on the sidelines of civilization.

The main lesson of that period was the understanding of the need to avoid group confrontations in society, the importance of showing will, perseverance, tolerance in resolving conflicts, in the ability to discern their roots and to organize a stable life both within the country and in interstate relations.