246
actually
to indicate that a situation exists or happened, or to emphasise that it is true
or correct, especially when its existence or truth is surprising.‟ Lenk (1998: 157)
claims that the phrase „when its existence or truth is surprising‟ does not correlate
with the actual use of the marker in spoken language. She maintains that that the best
classification for the propositional use of
actually
seems to be as an intensifier
16
that
does not express a „degree of surprise‟. A more worthwhile endeavour in considering
the propositional function of
actually
might be to focus on its „contrastive‟ element
(see Halliday and Hasan, 1976; Oh, 2000; Carter and McCarthy, 2006), where there
exists an implied „discrepancy between reality and what appears to be the case‟
(Aijmer, 2002: 274). However, the majority of the research does appear to agree on
one important point that propositional
actually
is associated in some way with
„unexpectedness‟ (Oh, 2000). Cheng and Warren (2001) propose two micro
functions
for propositional
actually
:
1.
To indicate a situation exists or happens
2.
To emphasise something unexpected is true or correct.
According to Lenk (1998) and Cheng and Warren (2001), propositional uses of
actually
can be paraphrased by
in fact
or
really
. Furthermore, Aijmer (2002)
suggests that where the marker provides unexpected information, it can be compared
to
what’s more
or
as a matter of fact
. From the point of view of position within an
utterance, Lenk (1998) maintains that the marker is frequently used as a pre- or post-
verbal intensifier thereby implying that it occurs medially. Although Oh (2000)
found no one-to-one correlation between position and function, he does claim that
there exists a restriction that the propositional use of
actually
can only occur
medially (see also
Cheng and Warren, 2001).
The second function of
actually
in spoken language is as a discourse marker.
Tognini-Bonelli (1993), working with the COBUILD corpus, maintains that the
marker is used to mitigate self-correction and challenge. Lenk (1998) examined the
London-Lund Corpus of Spoken English and The Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken
American English and determined that, in its discourse marker role,
actually
has
16
Holmes (1990) also classifies
actually
as an intensifier or booster.
247
three micro-functions: as a personal opinion marker, as an expression of objection to
what has been said before and as a topic (or turn) initiator. In another study, Cheng
and Warren (2001), incorporating these studies and the work of Sinclair and Brazil
(1982), Stenström (1986) and Sinclair
et al
. (1995), propose five micro functions for
discourse marker
actually
:
1.
To mitigate correction, rephrasing or contradiction (in the self and
others)
2.
To introduce a new
topic or sub-topic
3.
To act as a filler
4.
To introduce or
mitigate a point of view
5.
To imply a sense of solidarity, intimacy and friendliness.
Where paraphrase is useful in determining propositional
actually
, collocation can
play an important role in how the discourse marking function is understood.
Actually
frequently collocates with other hedges such as
I think
,
you know
or
well
in order to
function as a mitigator or to be softened by other markers. From a positional
perspective, in contrast to propositional
actually
, although Aijmer (1986, 2002)
suggests that the marker appears to perform a different function according to its
position, the discourse marker function appears to be relatively flexible in position
within the utterance (see Watts, 1988; Lenk, 1998; Oh, 2000). This may have led to
the discrepancies noted by Cheng and Warren (2001) who observed that the position
of discourse marker
actually
differed between native and non-native speakers. This
in turn, they claim, could lead to strain on the hearer and perhaps intercultural
communication problems.
This study be will primarily concerned with the discourse marker function of
actually
given that the micro functions 1 and 4 listed here feature mitigation, a
feature of hedging in the realm of negative politeness, and 5 is connected to
displaying solidarity, intimacy and friendliness, a feature of positive politeness.
Table 8.8 illustrates the functional breakdown of the occurrences of
actually
in
SettCorp and TravCorp: