Closed class grammatical sets:
1.
Modal verbs:
could, might
.
2.
Nouns:
possibility.
3.
Adjectives:
possible
.
4.
Adverbs:
possibly, maybe
.
Syntactic markers:
Question tags, passives.
Pragmatic markers:
I think, just, sort of.
Rhetorical devices:
Understatement, vagueness/approximation.
Paralinguistic features:
Stutter, hesitation, false start.
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2001; Mauranen, 2004) and these should also be taken into account when attempting
any taxonomy of hedging.
The introduction of the word
hedge
to linguistic research is attributed to the seminal
work of George Lakoff (1972) who coined the term in order to describe lexical
expressions „whose job it is to make things fuzzier or less fuzzy‟ (1972: 195). Lakoff
is primarily concerned with the semantic contribution that hedges make to the
statement in which they occur, given, he maintains, that they affect assertions of
category membership. Thus, when it is claimed that
A chicken is a sort of bird
, the
chicken‟s semantic connection to the category of
birds
is more true than the
unhedged statement
A chicken is a bird
. This is in keeping with Rosch (1973, 1978),
who developed prototype theory and views hedges as linguistic devices that modify
prototypical category membership. Lakoff was also interested in other hedges such
as
regular
:
(a)
Esther Williams is a fish.
(b)
Esther Williams is a regular fish.
According to Lakoff, (a) is false since clearly, Esther is a human being and not a
fish. However, in (b)
regular
invokes characteristics attached to the word
fish
while
simultaneously negating the literal meaning. In doing this, Lakoff drew attention to
the relationship between meaning and connotation, thus beginning the process of
establishing that any adequate treatment of hedges must consider the context within
which they occur.
Building on the work of Lakoff, Prince
et al.
(1982), using data taken from
Physician-Physician interaction, proposed a division of hedges into
approximators
and
shields
. According to them,
approximators
are hedges that affect the truth
conditions of propositions, therefore
His feet were sort of blue
signals that the
speaker is fully committed to the truth of the proposition s/he is conveying. On the
other hand,
shields
do not affect the truth conditions but reflect the speaker‟s
commitment the truth value of the whole proposition, for example, in the proposition
I think his feet were blue
,
I think
marks a level of uncertainty on the part of the
speaker in that s/he does not fully believe what they are saying. Hübler (1983) draws
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a similar distinction between
understatements
and
hedges
, with understatements
corresponding to approximators and hedges to shields (Markkanen and Schröder,
1997). Thus, a sentence like
It’s a bit cold in here
contains an understatement,
whereas
It’s cold in Alaska I suppose
contains a hedge. However, in examining these
categories, it is worth noting that Markkanen and Schröder (1997) question the
usefulness of these divisions. Skelton (1988: 39) claims that the distinction between
approximators and shields is „only sustainable in the abstract‟ as shields appear to
have an „indefinitely large potential domain [which may encompass approximators]
as shields can comfortably extend over more than one sentence‟. In addition to this,
Hyland (1994) completely omits shields from his taxonomy of hedges.
Since this early work on hedging, the concept has moved far beyond its origins to
encompass work in the areas of discourse analysis and pragmatics. Markkanen and
Schröder (1997: 10) note that „the most frequently mentioned motivating factor for
hedges is politeness.‟ Aijmer (1986: 14) claims that a hedge „signals that a word is
not treated in the usual sense (as a resource available to form messages with), but
that it is inappropriate, insignificant, negatively evaluated or approximate.‟ Perhaps
the most famous, and most remarked upon, study of hedging and politeness is Brown
and Levinson‟s ([1978] 1987) study which outlines the connection between the two
concepts. Brown and Levinson maintain that hedges are used predominantly in the
realm of negative politeness and are included in their negative politeness strategy
Question, hedge
(see Appendix B). According to Brown and Levinson (1987: 145
[original emphasis]) a hedge:
…is a particle, word, or phrase that modifies the degree of membership of a
predicate or noun phrase in a set; it says of that membership that it is
partial
, or
true only in certain respects, or that it is
more
true and complete than perhaps
might be expected.
For example, hedges such as
I think
(labelled a
quality hedge
by Brown and
Levinson, 1987: 164) allow the speaker to avoid full responsibility for the truth of
his/her utterance, distancing both her/himself and the hearer from the act, thereby
satisfying or redressing the hearer‟s negative face. Therefore, hedges downtone the
illocutionary force of an utterance allowing the speaker to weaken his/her
commitment to its propositional content. Hedges have a lesser role to play in
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positive politeness: linguistic actions aimed at building on indices of solidarity such
as in-group membership (see Section 2.1.1), modifying extremes on the value scale
such as
beautiful
or
revolting
. Therefore, Brown and Levinson claim that in the
utterance
It’s really beautiful, in a way
, the hedge
in a way
allows the speaker to
avoid the precise communication of his/her attitude, „leaving it up to the addressee to
figure out how to interpret it‟ (
ibid
: 116-117). They maintain that by using one of
these hedges, the speaker calls upon the hearer to use the common knowledge
between them to interpret speaker attitude thereby appealing to the hearer‟s positive
face.
Since the 1990s the focus of hedging research has shifted from casual, everyday
spoken language to both spoken and written language in the academic sphere. As is
evident from the depth of research in this domain, hedging is seen as an essential
tool in the „art‟ of academic/scientific discourse. Hedging in academic writing is
dependent on the same variables that govern everyday spoken interaction – social
distance, power difference and rank of imposition (Myers, 1989) – and this results in
hedges functioning in a similar manner to spoken discourse. For example, the main
function of hedging in academic writing is one of negative politeness, where the
presentation of new knowledge and ideas is downtoned or mitigated. Myers (1989:
13) claims that academic knowledge constitutes a face threatening act to other
researchers in the field because it „infringes on their freedom to act‟. Thus, hedging
signals that new knowledge is being presented „as being provisional, pending
acceptance in the literature, acceptance by the community‟ (
ibid
.). Therefore,
according to Hyland (2000: 179), „writers seek to modify the assertions that they
make, toning down uncertain or potentially risky claims, emphasising what they
believe to be correct, and conveying appropriate collegial attitudes to readers.‟
Indeed, Myers (1989) argues that a sentence with the appearance of a claim but with
no hedging is unlikely to be a statement of new knowledge. In other words, hedging
and the use of hedges ensure that the writer simultaneously saves their own face
while avoiding imposing on the reader‟s face. Furthermore, Clemen (1997: 244)
claims that „despite or perhaps, because of their mitigating effect, hedges can
increase the credibility of a statement (e.g. in academic texts).‟ This, in turn, has
raised questions regarding the motivation behind the writer‟s use of hedges and
Markkanen and Schröder (1997: 9) argue that hedges can be manipulated by using
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them to disguise writer attitude „in the sense that the reader is left in the dark as to
who is responsible for the truth value for what is being expressed.‟
Research in this area has also contributed to an increased understanding of the multi-
functionality of hedges. Hyland (1996: 437) maintains that:
Hedges are polypragmatic, conveying a range of different meanings often at the same
time. As a result, they do not fit into a neat scheme of discreet categories which allows
one meaning to be clearly distinguished from others.
This assertion has been echoed by research in other contexts. Mauranen (2004), in a
micro-level examination of the functions of epistemic and strategic hedges in spoken
academic discourse, maintains that some hedges fulfil the criteria for one category
but „the context induces the other interpretation as well‟ (p. 174). Studies into
individual hedges, many of which are detailed in the analysis section, also point
towards the fact that hedges can perform different functions, often simultaneously.
For example, Holmes (1985, 1986, 1990, 1993) has shown how commonly identified
hedges such as
I think
,
you know
and
sort of
perform a number of different though
closely related functions in casual conversation between men and women (a review
of studies into individual hedges such as these accompanies the analysis Sections
8.2.1-8.2.5).
This literature review suggests that any investigation of hedging, especially an
empirical, corpus-based one, should be guided by a caveat. Brown and Levinson
(1987: 146) claim that „hedging can be achieved in indefinite numbers of surface
forms‟. This, coupled with Markkanen and Schroeder‟s (1989; 1992) assertion that
factors such as the writers‟ own personality impact on the number of hedges used,
indicate that the researcher should be extremely cautious when it comes to the
analytic process of operationalising hedges. However, there are a number of features
that can be used to assist in determining the function of pragmatic markers, and, by
extension, hedges; these are
syntactic
(see Holmes, 1985; 1990; Lenk, 1998; Oh,
2000),
prosodic
(see Holmes, 1985; 1990),
lexical
(see Lindemann and Mauranen,
2001; Aijmer, 2002) and
stylistic
(see Miller and Weinert, 1995; Cheng and Warren,
2001). As the analysis section illustrates, there are also a number of socio-pragmatic
indicators that may impact on the hedging function. These include participant
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information such as ethnicity (see Cheng and Warren, 2001; Youmans, 2001;
O‟Sullivan, 2004; Fung and Carter, 2007), sex (see Maltz and Borker, 1982), socio-
economic background (see Huspek, 1989), age (see Erman, 2001; Macaulay, 2002)
or speaker relationship (see Östman, 1981; Lee, 1987; Markkanen and Schröder,
1997; Ruzaitė, 2007). All of the studies referred to here provide support for Fraser‟s
(1999) belief that pragmatic markers (or hedges) have a core meaning which is
procedural not conceptual and their more specific interpretation is „negotiated‟ by
the context, both linguistic and conceptual.
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