2.2.3.2 Age
As with gender, dialectology research has provided a great deal of information about the
relationship between age and patterns of pronunciation, grammar and lexis. Downes
(1998: 223) maintains that in this research „there is a reoccurring pattern in which scores
of younger speakers are closer to the vernacular, and away from overt prestige norms.‟
The use of non-standard vernacular forms appears to peak in adolescence and „then
steadily reduce as people approach middle age when societal pressures to conform are
greatest‟ (Holmes, 2001: 168). There is evidence that the use of the vernacular rises
again as people enter old age and a more relaxed phase of their lives (see Downes,
1998). Corpus studies such as Rayson
et al
. (1997) have supported the traditional view,
showing that younger speakers prefer certain interjections and show a marked tendency
in favour of certain taboo words. However, perhaps surprisingly, they also found that
younger speakers show a paradoxically stronger tendency towards more polite words
than older speakers.
In family discourse, adolescence has also emerged as a locus for research, and, in
common with other modern sociolinguistic and corpus studies, these studies have
concentrated on interactional features, and more recently, on the area of language and
political economy. Family discourse studies demonstrate that as children enter
adolescence, their interaction with their parents begins to change, and a transition from a
hierarchical relationship to an egalitarian one begins to take effect (see Youniss, 1989;
Smollar and Youniss, 1989; Tannen, 2001). Hofer and Sassenberg (1998) outlined this
progression in an analysis of mother-daughter conflict discourse. They found that
adolescent daughters surpassed their mothers in rejecting arguments and producing
counterarguments. They also produced as many proarguments (an utterance that extends
an argument to justify one‟s position) as their mothers. They maintain that in conflict
discourse, adolescents „may learn that knowledge can be used efficiently to justify one‟s
46
standpoint and to resist mothers‟ attempts to control‟ (p. 60). Interestingly, Hofer and
Sassenberg (
ibid.
) have shown that mother-daughter speech behaviour is governed more
by their role than the type of discourse within the same role. Their findings demonstrate
that mothers tend to control the flow of discourse and daughters respond, even when
symmetry is more pronounced as with adolescent daughters.
Beaumont (1995) compared communication patterns between adolescent girls and their
mother to conversations the girls had with their friends. She found that mothers and
daughters, as expected, exhibited different conversational styles. For example, the
daughters used more overlaps, simultaneous speech and interruptions than the mothers,
whereas the mother‟s speech was characterised by slower pacing, more pauses and few
interruptions or instances of simultaneous speech. Beaumont also disputes the notion of
a dominance hypothesis in family discourse, principally as the children enter
adolescence, they gain conversational power whereas the mothers lose conversational
power. However, she found that neither the mothers nor the daughters increased the
frequency of their interruptions during adolescence. Beaumont maintains that these
findings suggest that there is a move from a hierarchical to a more egalitarian
relationship during adolescence. Furthermore, a functional analysis of these
interruptions revealed that the adolescent girls interrupted their mothers primarily to
challenge the stance taken by the mother. This, she believes, is indicative of
involvement rather than dominance (see also Tannen, 1984).
Nilep (2009), through an examination of the relationship between the members of a
Japanese-American, bilingual family, attempts to show how micro-level interactions
both reflect social schemas and help reproduce them. In his study, he noted that the
mother prefers her children to use Japanese in the home and, therefore, the mother‟s
powerful social role therein is indexed by her use of this language. This is evident, for
example, when the mother uses little mitigation when issuing directives in Japanese.
However, Nilep argues that because the siblings speak English outside the home, they
have more social capital (Bourdieu, 1991), and therefore more power, in the broader
English speaking community than their mother. The older siblings appear to recognise
47
this and employ this power both through challenging the role of their mother and also by
seeking to socialise their younger counterparts into locally appropriate roles. Nilep
demonstrates how, both in the presence and absence of the mother, the older siblings
evaluate their younger siblings‟ use of code-switching within the family unit, ratifying
certain choices and censuring others. In doing so, the older siblings subvert the role of
the mother in ratifying linguistic behaviour and also place themselves in a more
powerful role than the younger ones.
2.2.3.3 Ethnicity
Language has long been identified as one of the defining features of an ethnic grouping
and the role of language as a marker of ethnic identity has been explored in many
different contexts. One commonality in the relationship between ethnicity and language
variation is that where a choice of language is available for communication, it is often
possible for an individual to signal their ethnicity by their language choice. Eriksen
(2002) maintains that in order for ethnicity to come about, distinct groups must have a
minimum amount of contact with each other and perceive that they are culturally
different from one another. He stresses the need to view ethnicity as essentially an
aspect of a relationship, not a property of a group. This is in accordance with Fought‟s
(2002: 444) assertion that „ethnicity is not about what one is, but rather about what one
does‟. She points out that the bulk of the sociolinguistic research on ethnicity and
language change „has focused on majority communities, often on speakers of European-
American ethnicity in large urban settings‟ (
ibid
: 456).
Fought further delineates previous studies in saying that those examining minority
ethnic groups have limited their analysis to investigations of phonological and
grammatical variation. For example, although some morpho-syntactic forms have been
identified, Cajun English is primarily described in terms of its phonological features
(see Dubois and Horvath, 1998, 2000). Similarly, the greater part of the seminal
sociolinguistic research based in Belfast (see J. Milroy, 1991; L. Milroy, 1987 and 2002;
J. Milroy and L. Milroy, 1985) is concerned with phonological variation. From the point
48
of view of the role of ethnicity in language variation, Rickford (1999: 90) maintains that
American sociolinguistics has made far more progress in understanding the role of
variables such as socioeconomic status or gender as sociolinguistic boundaries than in
the role of ethnicity. This, he states, is in the main due to the majority of the work in
African American Vernacular English focussing on describing the phonological and
grammatical features of the vernacular. The present study seeks to move beyond this
level of analysis and compare a minority ethnic grouping to the „mainstream‟ in order to
describe variation at a more discoursal, pragmatic level.
In terms of family discourse, Schiffrin‟s (1996) seminal paper on narrative
demonstrated how narratives situate experiences both
locally
in that the experience „is
situated in and relevant to „a particular “here” and “now”, a particular audience and a
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