dialect
, that is „varieties according to user‟ (
ibid.
). As previously
mentioned, sociolinguists have long been concerned with on how the variables of age,
gender, social class and so forth affect the way that individuals use language. In the
following sections, a number of these variables will be addressed in relation to the study
of family discourse. There are, of course, other social factors that may be considered in
any sociolinguistic study and two of these, region and religion, are not considered here
due to the fact that both families in the present study are located in the Limerick City
region and both are of the Catholic faith, therefore, these two factors are considered
„controlled‟ for the present study.
40
2.2.3.1 Gender
Gender has been one of the major „growth issues‟ within sociolinguistics in recent
years. It has variously been described as an „emotional‟ (Wardhaugh, 2007: 315),
„fascinating‟ and „controversial‟ (Wolfram and Schilling-Estes, 2006: 234) area within
sociolinguistic research. There have been various claims made about differences
between the speech of men and women, the diversity of which exceeds the scope of this
section. According to Coates (1986: 74), „early work on sex differences in language
emphasised women‟s apparent sensitivity to prestige forms.‟ For example, Labov
(1966) found that women showed a higher usage of prestige forms than men in more
formal styles but lower levels of these forms in more casual styles. Wolfram (1969)
illustrated how African American men produce more multiple negation constructions (
I
didn’t tell you nothing
) than women. Trudgill (1974) observed that women tend to use
more word final
–ing
than men who demonstrate a preference for
–in’
. Women‟s
language choice in these instances has been attributed to the prestige that is associated
with the „standard language‟. Elyan
et al
. (1978) found that women using an RP accent
were rated as more fluent, intelligent, self-confident, adventurous, independent and
feminine than women with a regional accent.
There have also been a number of studies into discoursal differences between men and
women. These have focussed on areas surrounding turn-taking in conversation such as
topic control (Zimmerman and West, 1975), interruptions and overlaps (James and
Clark, 1993) and verbosity (James and Drakich, 1993). Research has also focussed on
pragmatic elements of speech such as politeness (see Holmes, 1995; Mills, 2003). For
example, Lakoff (1975) and Spender (1980) have argued that women‟s speech is
characterised by elements such as hedges and tag questions which lead them to mark
women‟s speech as indirect, diffident and hesitant. Research such as Lakoff‟s (1975)
study sparked a gender debate in sociolinguistics that centres on a difference-dominance
argument. The first difference view is that women‟s and men‟s biological differences
are reflected in their language behaviour. The second, the dominance argument, claims
that language use is hierarchical and reflects male dominance. Therefore, men use
41
speech to dominate both each other and women. These arguments have been all but
rejected by gender researchers. Wardhaugh (2007: 327) argues that accounting for
differences based on biology „seems rather to be a clear case of stereotyping, which
offers no more than a facile solution to a difficult problem.‟ The more credible
difference argument now established is concerned with the different learned social
behaviour of men and women. This viewpoint maintains that both groups are subject to
different life experiences and that this is reflected in their language use.
Ochs and Taylor (1994: 98) maintain that „family exchanges do not simply exemplify
gender relations otherwise shaped by forces outside the family but, rather, are the
primordial means for negotiating, maintaining, transforming, and socialising gender
identities.‟ If the dinner table is the primary site for studies of family discourse, then the
primary focus of these studies is the parents, more specifically the mother. Early
accounts of gender differences and amounts of talk found that men talk more then
women in mixed-sex interaction in order to exploit their greater power and exert
dominance and control over women (see James and Drakich, 1993). More recently,
however, sociolinguists have acknowledged that the mother is the central figure in a
family‟s verbal and non-verbal interaction. Correspondingly, more recent empirical
studies have found that mothers frequently do the most talking in the family, especially
at mealtimes. Tryggvason (2006) found that the mother was the most dominant speaker
in the three cultural groups in terms of utterances, turns and words produced. In each
group, the father and target child contributed equally to the conversation.
1
Similarly, De
Geer and Tulviste (2002) found that Estonian and Swedish mothers dominate the floor
when it comes to the overall amount of speech.
2
Research has also shown that mothers
dominate the use of particular linguistic strategies. Ely
et al
. (1995) initiated a corpus-
based study of middle-class, American families in order to generate a descriptive
account of adults‟ and children‟s use of reported speech. They found that most families
use reported speech during the course of dinner time, however, this attention to „talk
1
In Tryggvason‟s study the target child was aged between 9 and 13 years.
2
Gender-based findings such as those of Tryggvason (2006) and De Geer and Tulviste (2002) show
considerable cross-cultural variation. For example, Blum-Kulka (1997a) observes that in Jewish
American families, the fathers take a larger talking space than the mothers.
42
about talk‟ is far more notable in the speech of mothers than of fathers or children. They
associate the greater attention paid to reported speech by the mother with the language
socialisation processes – „in middle-class homes, where the mothers serve as the
primary caretakers, it is not surprising that mothers talk more about talk‟ (p. 217). As
the primary caretaker, it seems that mothers use reported speech to encourage and
support communication with their younger children.
Studies have also shown that mothers occupy a myriad of roles in interaction with other
family members. Using an interactional sociolinguistic approach, Kendall (2008)
performed a framing analysis of one family‟s dinnertime encounters in order to examine
the discursive creation of identity and to explain the interactional dynamics of families.
Interactional sociolinguistics largely grew from the work of Gumperz (1982a, 1982b)
and Goffman (1956; 1959; 1967). Gumperz maintains that are interactions are critically
linked to our socio-cultural context. Eggins and Slade (2001: 35) further add that:
…in our participation in discourse events, we are always bound by our cultural
context. Because we interact with orientations only to those contextualisation cues
that our background knowledge prepares us for, miscommunication can occur
when we come into contact with interactants who do not share our cultural
context.
Much of the empirical work done in interactional sociolinguistics in relation to family
discourse is that performed by Deborah Tannen (1994; 2001; 2007). Tannen builds on
Bateson‟s (1972) and Goffman‟s (1981) concept of a linguistic
frame
as a way of
understanding participants‟ interpretation of ongoing interaction (see also Chapter 5).
Kendall (2008) identified five frames linguistically created and maintained by one or
both parents. In addition, she identified fifteen positions taken up by the parents within
these frames. These frames and positions are identified in Table 2.2:
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