McCormick on Evidence,
1999, St Paul, Minnesota: West, pp 28–29.
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310
In civil law systems generally, there is little that binds the court in relation to
expert opinion evidence. It is entirely within the discretion of the court to determine
who can be qualified as an expert and on what basis. In practice, civil law courts
tend to accept expert evidence without any further scrutiny.
126
There is no equivalent
to the common law ultimate issue rule, although implicitly, there is, as the expert
witness can only testify according to his expertise. The ultimate matter of guilt of
the alleged perpetrator would not fall within the ambit of his expertise.
In principle, the Tribunals follow the common law approach. Testimony qualifies
as expert testimony where ‘intended to enlighten the judges on specific issues of a
technical nature, requiring special knowledge in a specific field’.
127
The evidence given
by the expert needs to be relevant and of assistance to the Chamber in its deliberations.
128
If the evidence relates merely to legal issues, rather than issues of a technical nature, it
will not be admitted, as the judges are well capable of drawing their own conclusions
on legal matters.
129
In the
Military I
case, the ICTR Trial Chamber held that:
…[i]t is widely accepted and the parties in this case do not dispute that the role of an
expert is to provide opinions or inferences to assist the finders of fact in understanding
factual issues. In addition, there is no dispute that before being permitted to submit
opinion testimony, the Chamber must find that the expert is competent in her
proposed field or fields of expertise. The expert must possess some specialised
knowledge acquired through education, experience, or training in a field that may
assist the fact finders to understand the evidence or to assess a fact at issue.
130
The ICTY held that expert reports can only be used to prove general events, not for
the determination of the guilt of a specific alleged perpetrator.
131
Thus, it respects
the ultimate issue rule of common law. The ICTR, however, adopted a different
approach. As will be illustrated below, in the
Military I
case, the expert report of
Madame DesForges was accepted despite the fact that she discussed the culpability
of the four persons accused in great detail.
132
Moreover, as regards relying on hearsay evidence, which to a certain degree is
impossible to avoid, it seems that the ICTY is more cautious than the ICTR. Two
examples, one from the ICTY and the other from the ICTR, illustrate this difference
in approach in relation to both hearsay evidence and the ultimate issue rule. In the
Kovacevic
case,
133
the defence made an objection against inclusion of prosecution
126 Some argue that one needs to be careful in qualifying a witness as an ‘expert’ as judges are inclined to
attach great importance to an expert opinion, sometimes too much. See
op cit,
West
et al,
note 31, p 221.
127
Akayesu,
Decision on a Defence Motion for the appearance of an Accused as an Expert Witness (9
March 1998); reiterated in
Prosecutor v Nahimana, Barayagwiza, Ngeze,
Decision on the Expert Witnesses
for the Defence (24 January 2003), Case No ICTR-99–52-T, para 2.
128
Ibid, Nahimana,
paras 6 and 11.
129
Ibid,
paras 16 and 22;
Nahimana and Others,
Decision to Reconsider the Trial Chamber’s Decision of
24 January 2003 on the Defence Expert Witnesses (25 February 2003), para 4.
130
Prosecutor v Bagosora and Others,
Oral Decisions on Defence Objections and Motions to Exclude the
Testimony and Report of the Prosecution’s proposed Expert Witness, Dr Alison DesForges, or to
Postpone her Testimony at Trial (4 September 2002), Case No ICTR-41–98-T, para 5;
Nahimana
oral
decision (20 May 2002), pp 122–26.
131 See, eg,
Prosecutor v Kovacevic,
Official Transcript (6 July 1998), Case No IT-97–24-T, p 71;
Kordic and
Cerkez,
Official Transcript (28 January 2000), pp 13268–306.
132
Bagosora and Others,
Oral Decisions on Objections to Exclude Testimony (4 September 2002), para 8.
133
Kovacevic,
Official Transcript (6 July 1998).
Chapter 11: Evidence before the Ad Hoc Tribunals
311
Exhibit 10 on the ground that it contained multiple hearsay and otherwise
inadmissible evidence.
134
The document constituted a report of an expert, namely a
judge, who summarised, analysed and collated information from 400 witnesses.
Thus, the defence argued that it was denied the fundamental right to cross-
examination, and the right to confront witnesses, as the judge, the only witness
available for cross-examination, was not a direct witness herself. With reference to
an expert witness, the defence rightly held: ‘[t]hey cannot merely summarise evidence
and introduce it under the guise of being an expert.’
135
The prosecution responded that:
…it is very clear on its face, she does not purport to give exact details from specific
witnesses. What she purports to do in that report is to analyse a great body of
evidence. And, based on that analysis, reach certain conclusions. It’s in a summary
form, such as a contemporary historian may provide when reviewing evidence that
occurred very recently.
136
The defence argued:
We’re not talking about simply hearsay that an expert may use to fortify their expert
opinion. We’re talking about being denied the right to cross-examine a paper witness.
137
May J responded:
It is our view that the witness should be treated as an expert in this sense, an expert
who has made a study of material and is therefore qualified to give evidence about
it. The position being analogous to that of the historian. We take entirely the point
made by the defence, that they cannot cross-examine the 400 witnesses on whose
statements this evidence will be based. We understand that. But in this Tribunal we
admit all types of evidence. The hearsay rule does not apply, but the issue of how
much weight is given to this evidence is very much a matter for the Tribunal. And,
in that connection, we shall, of course, bear in mind that it is hearsay. And, as I said
earlier, sometimes hearsay upon hearsay With those considerations in mind, we
shall admit the report. But, I should make it quite plain, there is no question of this
defendant being convicted on any count on the basis of this evidence. And we shall
require other evidence before we consider taking any such course.
138
In the above case, it is highly questionable why that person qualified as an expert,
and an expert in what. Is gathering materials an expertise? The dangers of qualifying
a witness as an expert are well known. Often, their opinions are blindly followed.
Experts in the Tribunals tend to rely on materials of others. They may have collected
the materials but base their findings entirely on what others have said. The dangers
of relying mainly on hearsay evidence are nevertheless recognised, and Judge May
rightly stated that someone should not be convicted on the basis of such report only.
In the
Kordic and Cerkez
case, the defence raised an objection with regard to the
expertise of Professor Cigar, the author of a book on ethnic cleansing in 1995.
139
The
134
Ibid,
pp 69–71.
135
Ibid,
p 71.
136
Ibid,
p 73.
137
Ibid,
p 74.
138
Ibid,
p 75.
139
Kordic and Cerkez,
Official Transcript (28 January 2000).
International Criminal Law
312
prosecution argued that the controversy surrounding his expertise should not be a
ground for exclusion, but should rather be addressed during cross-examination.
140
May J raised concerns as regards the ultimate issue rule, as well as the relevance of
the allegations.
141
The prosecutor responded that the document included conclusions:
…which are the principal matters that are outside the experience of the Chamber and
upon which expertise is vital and helpful. And in his survey of and marshalling of the
material and then, applying his analysis to reach the conclusions that precede the final
conclusions, he is doing the work of an expert and not expressing final conclusions.
142
The prosecutor moreover argued that:
He gathers together the material with expertise that is not available to us. This is a
recognised and respected area of expertise to which he’s devoted some part of his
life, entirely neutrally gathering materials that aren’t available to us in their broad
range and knowing where to look, and that marks him out and it gives him a
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