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none really exists.
54
Other guidelines include clearly communicating the bases and
processes for performance evaluation, tying rewards directly to performance, and minimiz-
ing competition among managers for resources.
55
Of course, these guidelines are much easier to list than they are to implement. The
well-informed manager should not assume that political behavior does not exist or,
worse yet, attempt to eliminate it by issuing orders or commands. Instead, the manager
must recognize that political behavior exists in virtually all organizations and that it
cannot be ignored or stamped out. It can, however, be managed in such a way that it
will seldom inflict serious damage on the organization. It may even play a useful role
in some situations.
56
For example, a manager may be able to use his or her political
influence to stimulate a greater sense of social responsibility or to heighten awareness
of the ethical implications of a decision.
SUMMARY OF LEARNING OUTCOMES AND KEY POINTS
1.
Describe the nature of leadership and relate lead-
ership to management.
• As a process, leadership is the use of noncoer-
cive influence to shape the group’s or organi-
zation’s goals, motivate behavior toward the
achievement of those goals, and help define
group or organization culture.
• As a property, leadership is the set of charac-
teristics attributed to those who are perceived to
be leaders.
• Leadership and management are often related
but are also different.
• Managers and leaders use legitimate, reward,
coercive, referent, and expert power.
2.
Discuss and evaluate the two generic approaches
to leadership.
• The trait approach to leadership assumed that
some basic trait or set of traits differentiated
leaders from nonleaders.
• The leadership behavior approach to leadership
assumed that the behavior of effective leaders
was somehow different from the behavior of
nonleaders.
• Research at the University of Michigan and Ohio
State University identified two basic forms of
leadership behavior—one concentrating on work
and performance, and the other concentrating on
employee welfare and support.
• The Managerial Grid attempts to train man-
agers to exhibit high levels of both forms of
behavior.
3.
Identify and describe the major situational
approaches to leadership.
• Situational approaches to leadership recognize
that appropriate forms of leadership behavior
are not universally applicable and attempt to
specify situations in which various behaviors
are appropriate.
• The LPC theory suggests that a leader’s beha-
viors should be either task oriented or rela-
tionship oriented, depending on the
favorableness of the situation.
• The path-goal theory suggests that directive,
supportive, participative, or achievement-
oriented leader behaviors may be appropriate,
depending on the personal characteristics of
subordinates and the environment.
• Vroom’s decision tree approach maintains
that leaders should vary the extent to which
they allow subordinates to participate in
making decisions as a function of problem
attributes.
• The LMX model focuses on individual rela-
tionships between leaders and followers and on
in-group versus out-group considerations.
4.
Identify and describe three related approaches to
leadership.
• Related leadership perspectives are as follows:
• The concept of substitutes for leadership
• Charismatic leadership
• The role of transformational leadership in
organizations
5.
Describe three emerging approaches to leadership.
• Emerging approaches include the following:
• Strategic leadership
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