The Turkestan Autonomous Government
Throughout 1917 it seemed that these political tempests would not penetrate
into the Ferghana province. The centralized and semi-military structures of Rus-
sia’s colonial administration had only recently been introduced there and were
96 ABASHIN, K. ABDULLAEV, R. ABDULLAEV, KOICHIEV
now gradually losing control over the situation in the valley. Their efforts were
increasingly concentrated on the protection of the city of Tashkent and especially
its Russian-speaking residents. In the Muslim quarters of cities and especially in
the rural areas where the majority of the indigenous population lived, district and
rural institutions gained in importance, thanks both to the formal and informal
authority vested in them, and to their many informal connections with the local
society. Particularly important were the kurbashis, who served as police chiefs in
Muslim urban quarters and were the only figures with legal access to weapons and
the right to use force. All this helped split society into numerous antagonistic yet
simultaneously compromise-seeking groups and factions.
Deteriorating economic conditions also caused mounting tensions in the
Ferghana Valley. Cotton producers faced the collapse of commodity prices and
the disappearance of buyers. The area of land under cotton cultivation shrank by
54.4 percent between 1915 and 1916.
4
However, the peasants could not replace
the land with corn because they had no access to credit with which to buy seeds.
Therefore, corn acreage shrank by 41 percent in the same period.
5
Even before the
war Ferghana had grown only half of the corn it needed, and now corn deliveries
from other regions fell, spreading hunger among significant parts of an already
jobless populace.
Crucial developments in the winter of 1917–18 harshly destabilized conditions
throughout the region, and made the Ferghana Valley the center of Turkestan’s
political life. Turkestan On November 26, 1917 a Fourth Extraordinary Regional
Congress of Muslims convened at Kokand, formerly the capital of the Kokand
Khanate and still one of the major economic centers of the valley. The Congress
consisted of some 200 delegates, more than half of whom came from the Ferghana
Valley itself. At the top of the agenda was the issue of Turkestan’s independence.
Ubaidulla Hodjaev made a report justifying the need for a declaration of indepen-
dence. He noted that “There is no hope now for convoking an All-Russia Constituent
Assembly since most of the nations that formerly were part of Russia have left in
opposition to the Bolshevik usurpers.”
6
In the end the delegates adopted the fol-
lowing resolution:
The Fourth Extraordinary All-Muslim Regional Congress, expressing the will of
the peoples of Turkestan to attain self-determination on the basis of principles
annunciated by the great Russian revolution [of February, 1917], declares Turke-
stan’s autonomy within a union with the Russian Federal Republic. [The form of
the new autonomous government] will be decided by a Constituent Assembly of
Turkestan, which should be convened at the earliest possible date. This Congress
solemnly affirms that the rights of all national minorities inhabiting Turkestan
will be protected in every possible way.
7
A more radical proposal to announce an independence from Russia did not
receive a majority of the votes. Finally, the congress elected a Provisional Govern-
ment of Autonomous Turkestan, initially headed by a Kazakh named Muhammadjan
SOVIET RULE AND THE DELINEATION OF BORDERS 97
Tynyshpaev, a former member of the Second Russian State Duma. He was later
succeeded by Chokai. Both were former members of the Turkestan Committee.
Also elected was the Provisional People’s Council, which exercised parliamentary
powers. The future parliament, the People’s Assembly, was supposed to have fifty-
four members, with fully a third of its places reserved for the “European” part of
the population.
The Bolsheviks called the self-proclaimed Muslim government the “Kokand
Autonomy.” It was an attempt by various anti-Bolshevik forces to forge a legiti-
mate authority that could counterbalance the Soviets. This attempt was in many
respects involuntary, and had been provoked by the Bolsheviks’ unwillingness to
share power with Muslims. The anti-Bolshevik forces enjoyed the support of the
local population, but their leaders were divided sharply between moderate social-
ists, nationalist reformers, and conservative Islamists. Such ideological divisions
probably doomed them from the start. They tried to deflect the accusation that
they were anti-Russian. At the same time they addressed an appeal to the Petro-
grad Bolsheviks, reminding them that the Petrograd Soviet, in its “Declaration of
the Rights of the Peoples of Russia,” had promised autonomy to Muslims. At the
same time they appealed to the Bolsheviks’ adversaries, particularly to General
Alexander Dutov,
8
in whom they saw a real military force that could be mobilized
against the usurpers in Tashkent.
This “project” was relevant to the Ferghana Valley, albeit indirectly. Kokand was
chosen as a meeting place merely because it was sufficiently distant from Tashkent
as to avoid an immediately reprisal. Even so, Kokand immediately became an
important symbol of the anti-Bolshevik opposition. The interests of the Muslim
opposition extended beyond the Ferghana Valley to Tashkent, where major resources
were concentrated, and many of its leaders looked even further—to Orenburg and
Ufa, where Kazakhs, Bashkirs, and other Muslim peoples were busily organizing
governments. However, the Kokand “autonomists” in the end failed to enlist the
support of Muslims elsewhere in Turkestan and even in Tashkent. The emir of
Bukhara withheld his support. They did not identify their movement as a successor
to the Kokand Khanate. Instead, they mainly invoked values that were intelligible
mainly to Muslim reformers and Russians, and which would be understood in
Petrograd and in the European capitals to which they appealed for support.
Even the population of the Ferghana Valley was by and large indifferent to calls
by the new government for Turkestani autonomy, unsupported as they were by
military and economic power. The Cadet Party member Chokaev and the Bolshevik
Kolesov were equally alien to them.
9
The “autonomists” attempted to create their
own armed-squads headed by the Russian Tatar and Muslim, Mahdi Chanyshev.
However, an irreconcilably fractious officer of the “Kokand People’s Police” named
Ergashbai promptly seized control and escalated the conflict among the various
factions, effectively preventing them from rallying together in opposition to the
Bolsheviks and making them easy prey to their enemies.
While leaders of the Turkestan autonomy were nursing their internal antago-
98 ABASHIN, K. ABDULLAEV, R. ABDULLAEV, KOICHIEV
nisms and waiting on developments in Petrograd, where the situation remained
uncertain until the Constituent Assembly was convoked, Russian army soldiers
based in Tashkent and the Ferghana region took decisive action. A small band of
soldiers seized a fortress in Kokand and proclaimed the creation of a Revolution-
ary Committee (Revkom) headed by a Bolshevik named Efim Babushkin. Similar
revkoms were set up in Skobelev (now Ferghana City), the new administrative
center of Ferghana province, and in Namangan and Andijan. This meant that, in
effect, all units of the former tsarist army still based in the Ferghana Valley had
gone over to the Bolsheviks.
In late January 1918, the Fourth Congress of Soviets of the Turkestan Region
outlawed the Kokand autonomous government and ordered the arrest of all its
leaders. It confiscated the autonomous government’s monetary assets in Tashkent
and Kokand banks. Artillery squadrons were sent from Tashkent and other cities in
the Ferghana Valley to support the beleaguered post in Kokand. Among members
of the armed squads of Red Guard who arrived at Kokand were resident local Ar-
menians. Seeing the growing strength of the Muslims and fearing a repeat of the
anti-Armenian pogroms that recently had occurred in the Ottoman Empire, they
joined with the Dashnaktsyutun party as part of the Red Guards.
10
They violently
suppressed every attempt by the Turkestan autonomists and Ergashbai’s forces to
maintain control over Kokand, resulting in large-scale destruction and numerous
casualties among the city’s civilian population. The newspaper Ulug Turkiston
(Great Turkestan) reported that:
One-third of the old city was reduced to ruins. Piles of corpses, many of them
completely burned, are everywhere . . . Thousands of Kokand people have been
left without a roof over their head . . . It is worse than after a war . . . The exact
number of the casualties has not been reported but estimates put the number at
no less than ten thousand.
11
Ergashbai set up base in his native village of Bachkir, 20 kilometers from Kokand,
and began assembling fighters there. Increasingly, the struggle of Muslim volunteer
detachments against the Red Guards and Armenians assumed a religious character.
As violence spread throughout the Muslim “old towns” and the villages, initiative on
the Muslim side passed from leaders of the “autonomy” movement to local leaders.
Chokaev and other autonomist leaders fled Ferghana and Turkestan.
In this manner, what began as a confrontation between the Soviets and the
“Turkestan Autonomy” turned into a general open conflict among diverse forces
that spread across the Ferghana Valley. The universal resort to force was of para-
mount importance, because it had the effect of delegitimizing all major governing
institutions. The conflict between the Bolsheviks and Muslims resulted in the former
having no reliable allies for negotiations and no permanent contacts with the local
population, which only strengthened the hand of local radicals who had no inter-
est in dialogue. The defeat of the autonomist reformers removed the last leaders
SOVIET RULE AND THE DELINEATION OF BORDERS 99
with an interest in, or experience at, compromise. Now the Turkestan region was
left in the hands of those advocating active resistance, with the Ferghana Valley in
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