Cultural Responses, Jadidism, and Religious Revival
Russia’s conquest of the Ferghana Valley led to a loss of independence and
fundamental changes in the social political, economic, and cultural life of the
region. Members of the general public and the national intelligentsias perceived
these changes in different ways. Some considered the colonial regime to be a
standing humiliation to the national and religious feelings of their people. During
the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, many with
such views departed Central Asia with their families and relatives and emigrated
to various lands of the East, mainly such Muslim countries as Afghanistan, Iran,
and Turkey.
Others, however, viewed tsarist Russia’s colonial domination as a temporary
phenomenon. These people neither left the region nor accommodated themselves
to the colonial rulers. They expected to regain the region’s political independence
and therefore participated actively in movements of national liberation organized
throughout the Ferghana Valley.
But there were still others who neither left their homeland nor confronted the
powerful Russian Empire with force of arms. They instead chose another way, one
that called for the gradual enlightenment and reform of traditional society so as
to adapt it to modern life. Epitomizing this approach were the local enlighteners
and their disciples known as Jadids, from the Arabic word for “new.” The Jadids
acutely realized that a main reason for the fall of the Kokand Khanate and the loss
of sovereignty in the region was the comprehensive backwardness of Central Asian
society. They identified the sources of this backwardness as equally existing in the
political, social, economic, and cultural spheres of their lives.
Many prominent writers and champions of enlightenment played an active role in
the campaign for regional revival during the second half of the nineteenth century.
They included Ahmad Donish (1826–1897), a Bukharan by origin, as well as such
Ferghana Valley natives as Muhammadjan Mukimi (1851–1903), Zakirdjan Furkat
84 R. ABDULLAEV, KHOTAMOV, KENENSARIEV
(1858–1909), Toshhodja Asiri (1864–1915), Hodja Yusuf Mirfaiazov (1842–1924).
It was no easy matter to grasp in all its dimensions the nature and consequences
of Russia’s colonization of the region. Yet these writers strove relentlessly to do
so and were always sincere and consistent patriots.
The ideology they professed can be seen as a precursor of Jadidism, in that they
supported social, economic, and political reforms. Particularly notable was the
prominent Tajik thinker and publicist Ahmad Donish, who drafted a package of
reforms for the Bukharan Khanate. He invoked the best national and world prac-
tices when shaping his plans, which were grounded on the principle of a just and
progressive system of government. He also insisted that a country’s development
required education, and called upon his contemporaries to study modern science
and to master various trades.
Furkat’s life’s work was suffused with a desire to find a way for his people to
achieve progress. He equated ignorance with Hell, where no ray of light is visible,
and advised the young to study the secular sciences and both Eastern and European
culture. He directed his poetry against backwardness and stagnation, and offered
a vivid image of reality. In his essays Furkat attempted to appraise the colonial
policies of different European states and the struggles of oppressed peoples for
freedom and independence.
Mukimi, a contemporary of Furkat, used his writings to criticize sharply the
oppression, violence, and arbitrariness of both local administrators and Russian
officials. Like other enlighteners of the day, he hoped to live in a society where
people could receive a modern education, develop trades and industries, enrich
their spiritual world, and deepen the general culture.
A devout supporter of these ideas was the educator and poet Toshhodja Asiri,
who blamed people’s hardship and suffering squarely on the powers that be. In his
works he propagated the ideal of friendship among the Tajiks, Uzbeks, Kyrgyz,
and other local people. A practical reformer, Asiri proposed to relieve misery by
extending irrigation canals and thereby bring new land under cultivation. His vision
encompassed the utilization of natural resources.
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An outstanding literary and scientific figure of the Ferghana Valley was the
explorer, geographer, and educator Hodja Yusuf Mirfaiazov. A native of Khujand,
he had traveled to Russia, Italy, Spain, France and a number of countries in the
Middle East. During his travels Hodja Yusuf had frequented libraries and studied
various cultures, seeing at first hand the degree of progress achieved in each of
those lands. A polymath, he studied medicine, wrote verses, cultivated many types
of cocoons, was interested in irrigation, and wrote a book titled Cosmography. His
house became a favored place for meetings, convocations, and discussions among
scientists, artists, and writers.
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Donish, Mukimi, Asiri, Hodja Yusuf, and other leading Central Asian writers
of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries held Russian literature in high
respect and championed it among their contemporaries. They realized that a close
understanding of the humanistic and democratic features of that culture could help
COLONIAL RULE AND INDIGENOUS RESPONSE 85
people of the region integrate themselves into modern world culture and facilitate
their mastery of the highest achievements of human thought. At the same time,
they knew full well that the Russian conquest of their region, far from improving
the lives of indigenous people, had extinguished their political and economic in-
dependence and caused a serious spiritual and moral disorientation among many
strata of their own population.
The Jadid movement arose across Turkestan at the end of the nineteenth century.
It united within its ranks the most educated, patriotic, and progressive intellectu-
als among the young followers of the famed regional educators discussed above.
Over time, their agenda came to include a far broader range of social, economic,
political, and culturological issues than their teachers had pursued. However, they
followed their predecessors in devoting special attention to education. Prominent
Jadids like Mahmudhodja Behbudi, Abdulla Avloni, Abdurauf Fitrat, Munavvar qori
Abdurashidkhonov, Ishakhan Ibrat, Ashurali Zahiri, Obidzhon Mahmud, and others
all knew that their traditional education had failed to keep up with the times. All
of them called for the creation of New Method ( usuli-dzhadi) schools that would
provide education along totally modern lines.
The new Jadid schools used the efficient audio-lingual method to teach read-
ing and writing, as opposed to the slow pedagogy based on composition that still
prevailed in traditional schools. The Jadid schools also introduced new subjects,
including the natural and social sciences, which they combined under the name
“intellectual sciences” ( aklli ilmlar). The new schools were set up in the European
manner, with desks, maps, globes, blackboards, abacuses, and other such classroom
materials.
These new maktabs or schools organically blended the best of European and
Central Asian educational thought. Their appearance coincided with the infiltration
into Central Asia of bold new ideas on liberation that came from other Muslim
regions of the Russian Empire and from nearby countries of the East. This aroused
concern among the colonial administrators, who began to check very carefully
on the activities of these schools. Wherever possible, Russian officials tried to
divert the Jadid schools into instruments of Russification. One such official noted:
“ maktabs that employ the new methods can and should serve as a transfer points
to more purely Russian schools, but they can also develop into centers of opposi-
tion to Russian culture.”
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Russian policy in the sphere of education and culture gave overwhelming priority
to the interests of the metropolis, that is Russia, as opposed to the Muslims’ natural
right to a liberal type of cultural development. In this respect Russian policy was
clearly imperial in nature. Naturally, Russian administrators rebuffed any efforts
not clearly aligned with official edicts. They staunchly opposed what they took to
be the Jadids’ efforts to change the status quo, and few Russians made any effort
to understand those efforts.
One who did try was an official of the tsarist police, who penned a remarkable
report on Jadid schools:
86 R. ABDULLAEV, KHOTAMOV, KENENSARIEV
Evidence from the Police Department confirms the existence of a completely new
trend [in Central Asian education], which threatens to shatter the centuries-old
way of life of the more than fourteen million Muslims living within the Russian
state, and to mark a turning point in their existence. The adherents of this new
trend . . . point to the need to purge the faith of the mullahs’ superstitions and
ignorant expositions, and to strengthen the national character by expanding the use
of native languages in the literary, scientific, and religious spheres, and generally
working toward progress on the basis of Islam and Turkic national identity.
The police officer then got to the heart of the matter:
Whether these progressive forces will confine themselves to the above-mentioned
aspirations and goals or will, once they defeat those who support the old traditions,
proceed further cannot yet be determined. Similarly, there is no way to predict the
implications [of the Jadid movement] for the interests of the Russian state.
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In 1908 Count Palen designated a special commission to examine the new schools
in various cities across Turkestan, including fourteen in Kokand and five in Andi-
jan. All followed the principles of such famous Ferghana advocates of progressive
education as Ishakhan Ibrat, Ashurali Zahiri, Ibrohim Davron, Abdulvahhob Ibodii,
and Muhammad Sufizoda. The commission found that the local reformers
wish to return Islam to its previous position of power by developing new ways
of life. They seek to assure its progress and to revive the faded idea of religious
and political unity and solidarity. They are perfectly aware that to achieve these
goals they must bring the Muslim peoples out of their present state of ignorance.
Therefore, these reformers of Muslim life want to take a firm hold of the schools
and other appropriate educational institutions and turn them into strong and
enlightened champions of such ideals.
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The inspectors also wrote with alarm that the Jadid schools were already using
textbooks from Kazan and Constantinople that had not been reviewed by official
censors. The commission declared that the textbooks in question propagated
“dangerous” pan-Islamic and pan-Turkic ideas. All this provided a political and
ideological pretext for closing down numerous Jadid schools and prosecuting
activists who supported the new methods of schooling.
One way to fight the Jadid movement was to expand the network of Russian
schools in the region. The authorities viewed this as a means of Russifying the
indigenous people and preparing a new generation of Muslim youths who would
be more loyal to Russia. Yet despite some initial successes, this campaign did not
produce the expected results, and most indigenous families continued sending their
children to either traditional or Jadid schools.
That said, the process by which Jadidism evolved from being a new philoso-
phy of education the status of an influential political movement was difficult. The
wretched condition of the indigenous population and the stagnation of social and
political life guaranteed that Turkestan, Bukhara, and Khiva would continue to lag
COLONIAL RULE AND INDIGENOUS RESPONSE 87
far behind the developed countries. This reality prompted the Jadids to search for
more effective means of accelerating social progress on their soil.
The Jadids, including those from Ferghana, pointed to the fact that the Muslim
Orient had experienced a period of vital spiritual and cultural flowering in the
ninth to the fifteenth centuries, but which by the nineteenth century had become
stagnant. They attributed this to the slow intellectual adaptation by Muslim peoples
and states to changing conditions in the world. The Jadids concluded that “frozen”
forms of religious thinking retarded the process of modernization within Muslim
society and its adaptation to present-day realities. By liberating religious thinking
from that prevailing “ossification,” the Jadids hoped to revive the humanitarian
values and universal appeal of Islam. One Jadid intellectual, Sherzod Ahmadi,
wrote insightfully that:
The reason for our decline and our inability to follow the example of more ad-
vanced peoples is that our eyes have been covered by a “fog” of superstitions.
Some people try to shift the blame for our current decline on our sacred religion.
They think that the sharia law impedes progress and promotes setbacks. This is
not so. Once upon a time this religion enabled Arabs to triumph over ignorance
. . . and gave birth to a prominent culture. . . .
At the end of the day, religion cannot initially be a cause of flowering and
then a cause of decline. Islam is not against chemistry, philosophy and other
sciences . . . It is not the religion that estranged us from modern sciences and
universal literacy, but the myths, legends and superstitions we accepted in the
name of religion . . .
Why can’t we see that those who repeat these superstitions are blind to
modern science and culture? . . . Such a religious life, preoccupied as it is with
mutual strife, leads to our subjugation. If this continues longer, we will not have
a future.
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The local Jadids opposed the “ossification” and ignorance of some members
of the Muslim clergy, who misinterpreted sharia norms and distorted the meaning
of many of the most important tents of the faith. Regarding the topic of the day,
namely the revival of forgotten or ignored national and spiritual values, the Jadids
underscored to their compatriots the importance of strictly observing ethical stan-
dards. They believed this to be the sole path to social progress. They also sincerely
supported the cleansing from Islam of the many destructive layers, distortions,
superstitions, and dogmatic postulates that had infiltrated it over the years.
Many progressive figures from the Ferghana Valley worked to convince their
compatriots of the need for profound structural, social, and ideological reforms,
without which the Muslim world would be destined, they believed, to trudge
along in the rear guard of civilization. Accordingly they directed all their activi-
ties toward achieving this goal. Thus, one of the most prominent Ferghana Valley
Jadids, Ishakhan Ibrat (1862–1937), inspired by enlightened ideas, opened new
schools, bookstores, libraries, and even print shops in Namangan and other towns
and villages of the Ferghana Valley. Conscious of the importance of national history
88 R. ABDULLAEV, KHOTAMOV, KENENSARIEV
as a component of identity, Ibrat set about writing a number of works concerning
regional history and culture.
Abdulvahhob Ibodii (1877–1942) was one of the first to open an innovative school
in Kokand. In 1912–13 he issued popular textbooks on contemporary affairs ( Tashil
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