Continuity and Change in the Economy and Society
Once the governor-generalship of Turkestan was established, the Russian Empire
undertook a program of large-scale colonial exploitation in the region. The goals
of this effort were to weaken both the settled and nomadic aristocracies, to expro-
priate land from the indigenous population, to exploit agriculture to the maximum
extent possible, and to foster colonization. In 1871, on instructions from the em-
peror, Kaufman and his colleagues drafted a decree on the administration of the
Turkestan region. In the form reviewed two years later, Kaufman’s commission
proposed to nationalize all family farms (dehkan), leaving their former owners
with limited rights to their permanent use. All other forms of land tenure could
be terminated if the land had to be used for land or water-based communications,
for public buildings, for irrigation canals, or, significantly, for Russian coloniza-
tion. The only exceptions were some land belonging to foundations (waqf), land
designated for constructing cities, and urban lands purchased by Russian officers,
merchants, and clerics. Foundation lands leased to family farmers were also to
become state-owned.
31
The agrarian program of 1871–73 made it easy to expropriate family farms in
the Ferghana Valley. However, some Russians were not interested in doing so,
because they realized the family farms were producing a lot of cotton. In 1882 a
commission headed by Senator F.K. Giers was sent out to “identify and conclu-
sively determine land ownership rights in the Turkestan region.” This commission
78 R. ABDULLAEV, KHOTAMOV, KENENSARIEV
succeeded in limiting the ambitions of those Russian landowners who wanted to
treat the irrigated lands of Turkestan as a kind of colonization fund.
The Giers Commission also decided against allocating large plots of irrigated
land for the construction of Cossack villages. The commission noted that the Cos-
sacks followed the usual Russian practice of extensive farming, which involved low
yields on very large plots. This was incompatible with the Central Asian practice
of intensive farming, leading to high yields on small plots. Giers concluded that
“It would be almost impossible to allot large plots from the well-irrigated lands,
while the Cossacks will be unable to pursue intensive farming, which alone is
profitable in Central Asia.”
32
Thanks to Giers, as noted above, an 1886 decree reestablished the local
populace’s right to own land. Article 255 of this decree affirmed that “The settled
population is entitled to lands it has owned, used, and disposed of on a permanent
and hereditary basis and in accordance with local customs.” Meanwhile, Article
256 established that “The local population is entitled to use the water in irrigation
canals, streams and lakes in accordance with local customs.”
33
Article 259 stated
that land could be used by a community or by households or neighborhoods, de-
pending on local customs.
Finally, Article 270 affirmed that “Public lands occupied by nomad camps are
granted to nomads for their indefinite use [but not ownership], on the basis of custom
and the provisions of this Regulation.”
34
Even Russian authors have acknowledged
that this article treated nomadic peoples unjustly. One wrote that “The settled and
nomadic populations in Ferghana have dissimilar land rights. Settled residents
have vested rights to both cultivated and uncultivated lands they have owned,
used and disposed of on a hereditary basis, but nomads do not enjoy such a right.
Article 270 of the ‘Regulation’ states that the lands they occupy are considered to
be public and granted to them for use only. Even if they took up settled lives the
nomads would not possess the same rights, and would be entitled only to lands
already under cultivation.”
35
Senator K.K. Palen, who examined the region in 1909-1910, reported that
Russia had abolished tax privileges relating to land, equalized access to land, and
confirmed that people who owned and used land they had inherited could continue
to do so. By contrast, he noted that “Lands occupied by the nomadic population
were considered public property.”
36
The decision to treat the nomads’ lands this
way, which further divided nomadic and settled peoples from one another, flowed
naturally from the Russian Empire’s policy on settlement. A contemporary wrote
frankly that “to recognize land as belonging to the Kyrgyz people would make it
impossible . . . to expand Russian settlements.”
37
At the same time, the Kyrgyz biis
and beks were not able freely to dispose of pastures and wintering areas as they had
done before. By binding nomads to specific lands, Russia restricted their mobility
and to a certain extent expedited the process of their settlement.
Russia’s leaders, well aware of Central Asia’s military-strategic significance
and its abundant resources, intended to establish a firm colonial dominion over the
COLONIAL RULE AND INDIGENOUS RESPONSE 79
region. They were not content to rely solely on a strong army and administration.
In addition, they enlisted Russian immigrants to help create a firm foothold in the
region. The masterminds and leaders of the colonization movement concluded that
this task required special attention in Turkestan, where the indigenous population
of about 5 million people exhibited a demonstrably hostile attitude toward the
new authorities.
If the colonial goals of tsarism shaped Russian imperial policy on settlements,
so did its internal concerns. Declining access to land and the rise of commercial
agriculture within Russia were driving many Russian peasants into poverty and
despair. Tsarist officials hoped to resolve this acute economic and social problem
by resettling restive peasants to Central Asia. Count K.K. Palen openly stated this
strategic purpose of Russian colonial policy. Beyond the purely political motives
for conquering Turkestan, he noted, St. Petersburg annexed Central Asia because
“it would be a source of revenue for the government, and a new market for its do-
mestic products, and the resulting colonies could become a new area for resettling
surplus population from the internal provinces.”
38
New colonization rules for Turkestan introduced in 1883 allowed for the free
resettlement of Slavic peoples (Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians) who were
Orthodox Christians. All others needed to obtain special permission from the
imperial institutions and the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Subsequent “Rules of
Resettlement” introduced in 1886 and supplemented in 1889 and 1903 explicitly
fostered Russian migration into the region’s richest agricultural and commercial
areas. The 1903 law was candidly titled “Rules for the voluntary resettlement of
rural inhabitants and peasants into public lands of the Syr Darya, Ferghana, and
Samarkand provinces.”
39
Despite continual resistance from the indigenous population, colonial admin-
istrators utilized these acts to pursue a targeted policy to increase the number of
Russian immigrants and use them to exploit as much as possible the natural and
human resources of Central Asia. In the Ferghana region alone, more than twenty
Russian settlements were established between 1882 and 1900, increasing to more
than sixty by World War I.
40
According to survey data presented by Count Palen,
a quarter of the Russian peasants who arrived in the Ferghana Valley in 1907 had
been landless back home.
Colonists often arbitrarily seized indigenous lands, especially those used by
nomads and semi-nomads. Thus, a document of the era reports that as soon as the
Kyrgyz shepherds made their annual springtime trek to high mountain grazing
lands, the settlers “set out to build housing on the irrigated lands belonging to
the indigenous Kyrgyz. In some places they even seized the Kyrgyz winter huts,
destroying the Kyrgyz structures and using the lumber for their own construction,
and burning whatever was left as fuel for cooking.”
41
What particularly infuriated the local population was that the Russian settlers,
after destroying their winter huts and stealing their irrigated fields, took advantage
of the Kyrgyz departure to high pastures by “seizing the Kyrgyz crops for their
80 R. ABDULLAEV, KHOTAMOV, KENENSARIEV
own use and feeding their cattle on the Kyrgyz seed corn.”
42
Colonial administra-
tors did nothing to impede the colonists’ arbitrary seizure of native lands and even
encouraged the practice. One method of seizing land from the Kyrgyz nomads was
to dispatch a few settlers, who quietly leased large tracts and built houses on them.
Once established, the settlers would then petition the authorities to confirm their
ownership of the land.
43
There were many such cases where Kyrgyz leased land
to Russian settlers “for a period of one year only,” but the settlers then sought to
“settle down permanently on both the temporarily allotted land and the land they
had arbitrarily seized.”
44
The bulk of the colonists moved to cities. By 1907 there were 24,346 people
of east Slavic ethnicity in the Ferghana province, 14,722 of whom resided in cit-
ies.
45
In spite of the migration law’s emphasis on Slavic and Orthodox migration,
colonial administrators from the 1890s on noted that Turkestan’s new Russian
colonial population was “created out of the most heterogeneous elements.”
46
A
Russian official in Ferghana province, writing in 1908, observed wryly that the
new settlers in the Ferghana Valley “did not include the best representatives of the
Russian people, and indeed included all but the very worst.”
47
By 1910 the European population of the Ferghana Valley, primarily Russian
and Ukrainian, constituted slightly more than 2 percent of the total.
48
In spite of
the relatively small numbers involved, colonial resettlement policies had led to the
expropriation of hundreds of thousands of acres of irrigated lands, a decrease in the
number of waqfs, and a sharp reduction in the amount of land available to nomads
for cattle-breeding. Meanwhile, the urban population faced similar changes, above
all in the division of the larger and mid-size cities into a Russian “new city” with
improved services and a native “old city,” whose residents were subject to serious
discrimination.
In spite of some well-known positive aspects of Russian policies, the Russian
Empire’s approach to colonization and land-use left a deeply negative mark on the
social and economic conditions of the indigenous peoples. It led to sharp increases
in the numbers of both landowners and landless natives, and it impoverished most
of the nomadic population, whose members were forced to leave their pastures
and encampments in search of subsistence in the cities, which further exacerbated
social and interethnic tensions in the region.
Prior to the conquest, food crops were dominant in Central Asia as a whole and
in the Ferghana Valley, with cotton being a secondary product. But Russian traders
and investors demanded an increase in cotton production, as this would enable them
to reduce their import of expensive raw cotton from abroad. The government, too,
supported this because it would improve its balance of payments. Thus, between
1869 and 1893 Russia imported—mainly from the United States—1,133,980,925
pounds of cotton at a cost of 1,568,931,000 rubles.
49
The rise of production in Cen-
tral Asia and especially the Ferghana Valley enabled Russia to reduce this figure
sharply. In 1916 the Director of the Bukhara railway issued a report on “The need
for measures to sustain the cotton crop in Central Asia in 1916,” which noted that
COLONIAL RULE AND INDIGENOUS RESPONSE 81
if this were not done Russia would have to import a corresponding amount from
abroad at a whopping price of 525 million rubles. The report concluded by noting
that the saving to Russia from growing cotton in Central Asia, and above all in the
Ferghana Valley, had exceeded two billion rubles in the past decade alone.
50
By the start of the twentieth century cotton growing already dominated the
economy of the Ferghana Valley. The region’s General Manager of Land-Use and
Animal Husbandry, A.V. Krivoshein, acknowledged bluntly that cotton was “the
central nerve and main point of interest and concern of the local population. At
the same time it is also the link connecting Turkestan with Moscow and the rest
of Russia.”
51
The major area for cotton production in all Central Asia and over-
whelmingly the source of increased production after the Russian conquest was
the Ferghana Valley. From earliest times farmers there had planted an indigenous
strain of cotton called guza. The fibers of guza were short and of low quality, which
was made into a coarse local fabric ( karbos) used mainly for clothing sold locally.
Because guza did not meet the demands of the Russian cotton trade, Russian cot-
ton manufacturers introduced the longer-fibred American strain of cotton. They
employed various incentives to accomplish this: they distributed free American
seeds to local growers; provided interest-free loans to whomever would switch to
the American strain of cotton; offered twice the price for U.S. cotton as for the
local guza; and gave bonuses to growers who succeeded in producing large crops
of the American cotton.
These measures succeeded to such an extent that, while in the 1860s Central
Asia supplied only an insignificant 4 to 7 percent of raw cotton used by Russian
mills, by 1914–15 that figure had risen to 70 percent.
52
Russian officials quickly
realized that the very continued existence of their cotton industry depended on the
welfare of Ferghana farmers and households. But these dehkans could not survive
between planting and harvest without loans, and local money-lenders charged
high interest rates. Cheap credit somehow had to be extended to the dehkans. This
was accomplished by expanding the operations of the existing county loan offices
(called “people’s loan institutions”) into Turkestan and the Ferghana Valley. Local
authorities organized the region’s first such loan office in 1876 at Namangan city in
the Ferghana Valley. By 1909 twenty-one such loan offices were operating across
Turkestan, five of them located in the Ferghana province.
Russian trading companies and banks also contributed significantly to the
extension of credit to small farms and households in the Turkestan region, includ-
ing in the Ferghana Valley. The Russian State Bank established the first banking
office in the region in 1875 in Tashkent. It subsequently opened six more offices
in Central Asia, including ones in both Kokand and Andijan in the Ferghana
Valley. Russian commercial banks entered the region in the 1890s, reaching a
total of forty-five offices across Central Asia by 1917. Meanwhile, eighteen local
banks were formed. Overall, the total number of banking institutions in Central
Asia reached 72 by 1917, with twenty of them in the Ferghana province. Kokand
alone boasted branches of ten different banks. All of these offices provided short-
82 R. ABDULLAEV, KHOTAMOV, KENENSARIEV
term loans for periods of three months to a year. In addition, a Russian land bank
also operated in the Ferghana Valley, providing loans backed by the value of the
borrower’s real estate.
The rise of cotton cultivation facilitated the emergence of allied industries.
Nearly all the main growers financed by banks owned their own gins, and some
also operated oil-pressing enterprises. The first two cotton gins in the Ferghana
Valley appeared under the Kokand Khanate in 1847. By the 1880s Russian trading
companies were opening gins all over the valley, soon to be joined by merchant-
owned gins. By 1914 no fewer than 378 cotton gins were operating in Turkestan,
two thirds of them in the Ferghana province.
53
The Ferghana province also boasted
fifteen oil-pressing factories and several breweries.
54
Russians also exploited the oil and coal resources of the Ferghana province, with
six oilfields and twenty-eight coalmines operating there by 1913–14. The largest
of these coal mines were near the towns of Kizilkie and Sulukta.
55
A network of railways facilitated the regular transport of raw materials and
goods between the colony and the metropolis to the north. From 1872 to 1915
some 5,000 kilometers of railways were built in Central Asia. Since rail lines were
focused on strategic and economically important regions, it is noteworthy that one
traversed the Ferghana Valley.
Having found its way into Turkestan and taken full political and economic
control there, Russia quickly turned the region into an agrarian and raw materials-
producing appendage of the metropolis. With the help of loans, dehkans were
forced to produce the raw materials necessary for maintaining the Russian Em-
pire. Local industrial enterprises were small and confined the primary processing
of raw materials, chiefly cotton. There were no textile factories in the colony,
because Russian tycoons did not want competitors to their own mills at Ivanovo,
Moscow, and Vladimir.
56
From the outset, the Russian government paid special attention to trade in Turke-
stan, and as it learned more about the region it introduced Russian trade practices
there. As early as 1884 the military governor of the Ferghana province petitioned
the governor-general of Turkestan to abolish the traditional Muslim tax or zakat
and introduce general rules on trade there.
57
In response, an 1885 State Council
decree extended imperial business and trade rules to the region of Turkestan, and
a year later the zakat system was abolished in the Ferghana province.
58
By 1889
the new rules and taxes were imposed on all traders, including traditional steppe
merchants.
Further measures streamlined local trade. In 1894 the State Council abolished
traditional measures, scales, and trademarks, calling instead for the introduction
of imperial Russian ones within five years.
59
The same decree introduced Russian
currency into the region and withdrew all local coinage by 1895.
60
Thus, by 1900
Russian trade practices and currency prevailed across Turkestan and in the Ferghana
Valley. But in spite of the law, these new measures and procedures were put into
practice mainly in cities and large towns, while more remote and nomadic areas
COLONIAL RULE AND INDIGENOUS RESPONSE 83
of the Ferghana province continued to rely on traditional barter with scant concern
for the Russians’ regulations.
With the development of an economy based on commodities and money, the
old steppe trade gradually lost its significance, and parts of the Kyrgyz population
abandoned nomadism for a settled existence. Among the emerging hubs of trade
in the Ferghana Valley were Andijan, Namangan, Kokand, Margilan (Ferghana),
Osh, and Uzgen. The new centers of trade and industry became magnets for people
from neighboring nomadic regions. As the expanded markets of cities and villages
took over the steppe trade, former steppe merchants became sales clerks in the new,
larger enterprises, and they survived on goods and credit extended to them by the
owners. The numbers of people directly involved in trade soared. By some estimates,
more than two million people were living in the Ferghana Valley by 1914,
61
and a
significant percent of these were directly or indirectly in trade.
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