S. Frederick Starr
393
About the Editors, Authors, and Contributing Authors
405
Index
411
vii
Acknowledgments
This book was conceived by Drs. Pulat Shozimov of Dushanbe, Tajikistan, and Dr.
Inomjon Bobokulov of Tashkent, Uzbekistan. Shozimov, having achieved early
fame as a chess master and athlete, was already one of the most broadly gauged
and internationally acclaimed anthropologists and ethnographers from Central Asia.
Bobokulov, with his mild manner and fast-rising fame in the field of international
relations, brought an encyclopedic knowledge of the region’s best social scientists,
historians, and economists. At the time, both were fellows of the Central Asia–
Caucasus Institute at Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies
(SAIS) in Washington, DC. They burst into my office, carefully closed the door
and, not even bothering to seat themselves, announced the plan.
Now, in the context of the early twenty-first century, it is nothing short of
amazing that scholars from two countries that maintain rocky relations with each
other might conceive a joint study on one of the most sensitive topics that divides
them. So much the better, we agreed. But we immediately realized that the project
would be incomplete without participation from the third country into which the
Ferghana Valley has been divided since 1991, the Kyrgyz Republic. Dr. Bakty-
bek Beshimov was the obvious choice. A native of Osh and former rector of the
university in that city, Beshimov had coordinated the United Nations’ program of
research and assistance in the Ferghana Valley in the early 1990s. To our delight,
Beshimov agreed to join us.
This book is the product of a remarkable team effort involving Shozimov, Bobo-
kulov, and Beshimov, a feat of cooperation that should be the envy of, and model
for, political leaders in all three Ferghana countries. As the book’s editor, I know
better than anyone else the generous yet rigorous spirit in which all three went
about their assignments. It has been an honor to collaborate with them.
Once the general issues and topics had been laid out, the four of us began seek-
ing qualified scholars to contribute to the project of which we dreamed. Our plan
was to have a “lead author” for each chapter, with the key people coming from the
three Ferghana states. They were to be assisted by “contributing authors” for each
chapter, who would be drawn from the other two countries. In selecting authors
and contributors, we faced an abundance of riches and difficult choices had to be
made. The resulting team proved remarkable in every respect. Little did we imagine
when we began that the Ferghana book would include the best study ever written
viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
on the Kokand Khanate or that it would present astonishingly new material on
recent religious groups. The editors join me in thanking all the authors for their
generous contributions.
Even though the “Ferghana Project” was conceived in the Internet age, it
nonetheless posed complex problems of coordination. These were ably handled
by Katarina Lesandric and Roman Muzalevsky at the Central Asia
–
Caucasus
Institute. Their task was as thankless—until now—as it was endless, with drafts
to be elicited from several dozen very busy scholars, comments to be shared, cor-
rections to be made, and then more drafts to be sent out for more comments and
more corrections, ad nauseam . And so, on behalf of all the editors, I want to send
warm thanks to these two heroes of virtual labor. Without them this book would
never have seen the light of day.
All the members of the Ferghana team join me in expressing our deep gratitude
to M.E. Sharpe’s Irina Burns, whose meticulous and highly professional editing
brought unity to the work of authors from six countries and as many scholarly
traditions.
The Ferghana Project was made possible through a generous grant to the Central
Asia–Caucasus Institute from the Sasakawa Peace Foundation. Its Washington
director, Mr. Keiji Iwatake, had to endure the multiple delays that were inevitable
in so complex a project, and he did so with patience and understanding.
Finally, warm thanks to Anna Starr Townsend for her splendid design of the
cover. Selected by the editors from a bouquet of half a dozen alternatives she of-
fered, this one appealed because it suggested that Ferghana was somehow still the
center of Central Asia and also a bright and colorful place, rather than the grim and
conflicted zone we imagine based on all too many recent events.
S. Frederick Starr
Chairman, Central Asia
–
Caucasus Institute, SAIS
ix
Introducing the
Ferghana Valley
S. Frederick Starr
Besides its beauty and abundant natural endowments, nothing about the Ferghana
Valley is simple. For one thing, it is not a linear valley defined by rivers, although it
roughly corresponds to the basins of the lower Naryn and Kara Darya rivers and their
confluence to form the Syr Darya River. Rather, it is a large and roughly oblong flatland
defined by no fewer than five chains of surrounding mountains, the Kuramin, Chatkal,
Alai, Ferghana, and Turkestan ranges. The distance from north to south is about 100
kilometers, while east to west it measures approximately 300 kilometers at its widest.
On a very clear day between late October and April one can stand in the middle of
this valley and see snow-capped mountains on the horizon in every direction. Another
distinctive feature of the valley is that its name is not really Ferghana, or Fergana (forms
that date from Russian colonial rule), but Farghona. However, given that the term
Ferghana or Fergana has gained common usage we will use it, while acknowledging
that a different name prevails locally. Either way, the single name suggests a degree
of uniformity or unity that does not exist. This non-valley with a name imposed from
without is divided both linguistically and politically, with parts ruled by three states:
Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and the Kyrgyz Republic. Yet, as if to emphasize the theme
of complexity, the three national zones have as much or more in common with each
other than they do with the rest of the states of which each is a part.
It is worth pausing further on the geography of this peculiar place. Though seem-
ingly flat, Ferghana rises to broad terraces in the north and long, sloping terraces in the
south, on which one finds the Kyrgyz town of Batken. Nature made Ferghana a high
semi-desert, ranging from 400 to 500 meters in altitude. But like the Fertile Crescent in
the Middle East and the Indus Valley in Pakistan, it was the site of ancient but highly
efficient irrigation systems. Thanks to irrigation, this naturally dry zone supports a
major cotton industry. Much of the rest of the land is devoted to water-consuming
crops, including devzira, the widely available local rice, hot peppers, and husaini,
the tasty finger-like grapes. The Syr Darya and other rivers are home to the large and
abundant sazan fish, and the roads and avenues around the ancient silk-producing
center at Margilan are lined with lush mulberries. Besides these “signature” crops,
numerous other forms of agricultural produce thrive throughout the valley.
x
Adapted from map of
Asia (U.S. Government sources).
xi
Adapted from map of Fer
ghana
V
alley topography and hydrography by
V
iktor Novikov and Philippe Rekacewicz (UNEP/GRID-Arendal).
xii INTRODUCTION
Further paradoxes abound. If the valley is broad, it is also surprisingly intimate.
The central city of Namangan in Uzbekistan is a mere 60 kilometers from the eastern
Uzbek city of Andijan, which in turn is only 50 kilometers from Osh in Kyrgyzstan.
From Kokand in Uzbekistan to Khujand in Tajikistan is also a mere 125 kilometers.
Demographers identify the Ferghana Valley as one of the most densely inhabited
areas on earth. Yet in the lush countryside one encounters empty vistas of green, and
hay set out to dry on little-traveled trunk highways, while in the cities a leisurely
and spacious life prevails, with no sense of teeming masses.
Life may be leisurely but, for many, it is not prosperous. Poverty exists amid
natural wealth. And even though irrigation has been practiced in the valley for two
millennia, the present system is one of the least efficient anywhere.
In a world of pressing global issues and a myriad of crises, what claim can
the distant and paradoxical Ferghana Valley make on our attention? To start, the
region can reasonably be said to lie in the heart of Central Asia. As such, the Val-
ley has made an inordinate contribution to the history and culture of the region
as a whole. Today, with a population of nearly twelve million, it accounts for ap-
proximately one-fifth of the total population of formerly Soviet Central Asia. Its
population density on average is 360 persons per square kilometer and reaches
550 in some places. This compares with a density for all central Asia of a mere
fourteen persons per square kilometer. Beyond this, residents of the valley com-
prise nearly one-third of the population of Tajikistan and of Kyrgyzstan, and close
to one-quarter of the population of Uzbekistan. As such, whatever happens in the
valley significantly affects all three of these countries in their economic, political,
and religious spheres.
The valley’s economic contribution to each of the three countries is enormous.
Until the collapse of the USSR, powerful figures from Leninabad (now Khujand)
in the Ferghana Valley ruled Tajikistan; and. today’s president of Kyrgyzstan, who
hails originally from Jalalabad, served earlier in the Ferghana city of Osh. Religious
movements in the Ferghana Valley clearly impact the surrounding regions and coun-
tries; indeed, it is no exaggeration to say that many of the most important religious,
and hence social, currents in all three countries began in the Ferghana Valley.
Heightening these factors is the fact that the Ferghana region as a whole con-
stitutes the largest and most concentrated market in all Central Asia. Even though
this market has yet to be developed in the context of a post-socialist economy it
is there, an attractive opportunity for investors from the region and elsewhere.
Through it passes one of the most ancient east-to-west roads connecting China and
India to Europe, a route to which a rail line and a gas pipeline may soon be added.
It is already home to an oil refinery and an international automobile plant, and it
is the heart of the Central Asian cotton industry, the world’s second largest. These
factors alone should warrant the world’s attention. However, the Ferghana Valley
recently has come to the world’s notice for an entirely different reason, namely, as
a major source of instability now extending over more than two decades. It is true
that the Ferghana region was always prone to disasters. A powerful earthquake
INTRODUCTION xiii
and resulting floods in the seventeenth century forced Namangan and other cities
to move, while a powerful earthquake in 1920 obliterated scores of settlements,
killing thousands. But beginning in late Soviet times, the main source of instability
became social and cultural conflict, not geology.
Even before the USSR imploded, violence erupted between forcibly resettled
Meskhetian Turks and their neighbors in several Ferghana cities in 1989. Then,
in 1990 ethnic Uzbeks and Kyrgyz fought bitterly in Osh, Kyrgyzstan’s second
largest city, situated at the eastern entrance to the valley. In 1992 the Uzbek city
of Namangan witnessed an outbreak of religious-based violence that presaged the
founding of the radical Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan. In 1999 a Tajik colonel,
Mahmud Khudoiberdiev, took control of large areas of the Tajik sector of the valley
in an attempt to oust President Emomali Rakhmonov. That same year, and again
in 2000, bands of Muslim extremists intent on moving into the valley as a whole
invaded the Kyrgyz province of Batken, on the valley’s south side adjoining Ta-
jikistan. Later, on March 18, 2005, demonstrators took over the governor’s offices
in Jalalabad in southern Kyrgyzstan. President Askar Akaev had just been pushed
from office, and the Jalalabad events figured centrally in what later became known
as Kyrgyzstan’s Tulip Revolution. Only two months later, on May 13, 2005, heavily
armed religious extremists attacked city offices and a maximum security prison in
the nearby Uzbek city of Andijan, taking and killing scores of hostages and giving
rise to reprisals from government forces that left large numbers of people dead.
The Kyrgyz sector of the valley once more exploded in conflict in April 2010,
this time in the wake of a coup in Bishkek against the corrupt rule of President
Kurmanbek Bakiyev, an ethnic Kyrgyz from the country’s south, specifically Fer-
ghana. Impoverished locals, stirred up by Bakiyev holdouts, lashed out in frustration
at the steady decline of their region’s fortunes since the demise of the USSR, with
Kyrgyz killing up to a thousand Uzbeks and the latter responding in kind.
Individually and collectively, these and other incidents have given rise to the
notion that the Ferghana Valley is fundamentally unstable. The image is one of a
zone of crisis, with a generalized state of turmoil lying just beneath the surface
which can at any time burst into the light of day. An ample literature on the Fer-
ghana Valley has emerged, much of it the product of freshly coined experts who
have read ten articles in order to write the eleventh. Most of these writings can be
characterized as “catastrophizing,” in that they regard the various explosions of
instability as intimately linked with one another causally and arising from suppos-
edly age-old ethnic hostilities across the Ferghana territory. Thus, one study speaks
of the valley as an ethnic tinderbox that somehow must be “calmed,”
1
while many
others, accepting this hypothesis, confidently trace the source of all recent conflicts
to specific governmental policies.
2
Such speculations—and they are only that—have in common a failure to con-
sider these various incidents in any kind of broader context. Admittedly this is no
simple matter, for to do so demands an understanding of very diverse aspects of
human activity, including economics, social relations, politics, culture, religion,
xiv INTRODUCTION
and a myriad of sub-elements within each of these spheres. This in turn calls for an
array of skills that cannot be found in any one analyst or scholar, or even a small
group of them. Only a team of social scientists, historians, and linguists could
sketch for us the full context of Ferghana life in a manner that would enable us
better to understand not only worrisome past events but also future developments,
be they positive or negative. Equally important, such a three-dimensional picture
of the Ferghana Valley might help policymakers, business leaders, and members
of the active public to appreciate the area’s full potential and design programs and
policies that will allow the region to flower while minimizing existing forces of
instability.
To this end, the Central Asia–Caucasus Institute undertook to assemble such
a group of scholars. The initiative for this ambitious undertaking came from Dr.
Pulat Shozimov of the Tajik Academy of Sciences in Dushanbe, and Dr. Inomjon
Bobokulov of the University of World Economy and Diplomacy in Tashkent.
Both were Fellows at the Institute in Washington. In the spring of 2005 they asked
the Central Asia–Caucasus Institute to mount the project, and for me to serve as
general editor, to which I eagerly consented. From the outset, Drs. Shozimov and
Bobokulov conceived the “Ferghana Project” as a regional undertaking, involv-
ing scholars from all three Ferghana countries. Accordingly, they added to their
directorate Dr. Baktybek Beshimov, then provost at the American University of
Central Asia, Bishkek, and subsequently a distinguished member of the Kyrgyz
Parliament. All three had conducted previous research on the Ferghana region in
their respective disciplines. Thus was born the Ferghana Project.
The first task was to map out the parameters of a three-dimensional study of the
Ferghana Valley. Members of the core group at once agreed that it would be es-
sential to view the region over time, from its early history to the present. A second
axiom to which all assented was that the study must embrace not just the obvious
fields of politics, economics and religion, but also ethnography, sociology, and
culture. The Ferghana Project’s third underlying principle was that it had to include
the insights of leading scholars from all three Ferghana countries. The idea was
for each scholar to focus on his or her own national territory within the Ferghana
region, while also offering insights on the whole.
But how to do this? One approach would have been to commission parallel
essays for each chapter heading. But besides rendering the book unreadable, such
an approach would have implied greater degrees of disagreement throughout than
may in fact exist. Worse, it would have robbed participating scholars of the pos-
sibility of comparing their various insights, identifying common elements, and
of appreciating legitimate differences where they exist. A better alternative soon
presented itself. We decided to commission three “national” essays for each topic,
and then designate a “principal author” who would combine and synthesize the
various contributions into a single chapter for publication. These “principal authors”
would work with the “contributing authors” to assure that all national territories
were adequately covered, while also faithfully identifying areas of agreement and
INTRODUCTION xv
disagreement. In the end, however, the published chapters would be the work of
the principal authors alone. To assure overall balance, it was agreed that we would
impose a rough balance in the number of principal authors from each country.
Two chapters presented a special challenge: Chapter 4 on the delineation of
borders during the Soviet period and Chapter 11 on water. These topics are of
such great political sensitivity that it was agreed that the principal authors should
be drawn from outside the Ferghana countries. In both cases the final choice was
obvious. Not only is Dr. Sergey Abashin of the Institute of Ethnography and Anthro-
pology in Moscow an expert on the historical archives in which records pertaining
to the delineation of borders are preserved, he also could bring to bear his deep
understanding of Soviet policymaking in the 1920s and 1930s. Regarding Ferghana
water issues, Dr. Christine Bichsel’s recent dissertation for the University of Bern,
Switzerland, came immediately to attention, as did her about-to-be-published major
monograph on the subject. Each of these principal authors has benefited from the
research of the national contributing authors.
This, then, is the process that informed the preparation of this book. Note that
it involved the close collaboration of no fewer than twenty-seven scholars from
Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and the Kyrgyz Republic, and one each from the Russian
Federation, Switzerland, and the United States. Drafting involved constant and
intense interchange among contributing authors, between contributing authors and
principal authors, among principal authors, and between principal authors and the
four editors. This culminated in a two-day conference in Almaty in August 2008.
Had the goal of the Ferghana Project merely been to produce a series of uncon-
nected essays, such close collaboration would have been unnecessary. But the
editors and authors aspired to an overall synthesis that simultaneously would be
respectful of legitimate differences of fact and interpretation wherever they exist.
Considering the number of contentious issues the three Ferghana countries must
address as they coexist in the great valley, the Ferghana Project stands as a noble
model of collaboration and mutual respect.
As work on the project got underway, the authors immediately faced a perplex-
ing question: what is reality? As is normal in human affairs, the same situation
can give rise to very different answers. Thus, to take one example, mention was
made of the bloody political and religious conflict that exploded in the Uzbek city
of Namangan in 1992. This culminated in a frontal confrontation between a band
of militants and newly independent Uzbekistan’s new president Islam Karimov.
Some argue that this had been the work mainly of a former Soviet Army soldier
named Jumabai Khojiyev (nom de guerre, “Namangani”), and did not reflect the
local public’s sentiments. Others argue to the contrary, and assert that such tensions
still simmer just beneath the surface of daily life.
Today there are some 400 madrassas in the Namangan district, but the area is
peaceful. At the same time, the city boasts of modern foreign enterprises including
Nestle, Tip Top, and others from the Netherlands, Turkey, and Oman. The priests
of three churches maintain cordial links with local Muslim leaders at the Khuja
xvi INTRODUCTION
Amin Kabri Mosque. When evening falls, young couples sip juice or locally made
cognac at open-air restaurants, the women fashionably adorned in stylish scarves
that expose their necks. Back in their family homes, elders still prefer to use the
more formal plural “you” as a mark of politeness, reflecting the region’s traditional
civility.
Which of these images represents the “true” Namangan? In the end, the authors
concluded that their task is not to choose between alternative perspectives, each
of which may reflect different elements of reality, but rather to present all aspects
of the picture, accurately and fairly.
This affirmation has important corollaries. For one, it required that the insights
of many disciplines be brought to bear on one and the same situation. The reader
will therefore notice that many important subjects appear in more than one chapter,
often in quite different lights. Another corollary is that it was important to identify
a few fundamental questions that would be addressed again and again throughout
the book. In the end, the authors framed nine such questions, each of which will
be outlined here.
First, the Project has asked what parts of the valley’s long past are relevant to
the present. This question lends itself to both simple and complex answers. One
might argue, for example, that the collapse of the USSR and subsequent division of
the valley into national sovereignties largely shaped what we see today. Or that the
last decades of Soviet rule so fundamentally transformed the region that everything
that came before was merely a preparation. Does not the forced-march (forty-day)
construction of the enormous Ferghana Canal and the unbounded expansion of cot-
ton culture thereafter dwarf all that came before it, and go far toward defining the
present? Or maybe the watershed occurred with the delineation of Soviet borders
in 1924, which produced a map with all the madcap complexity of a jigsaw puzzle?
Yet soon we find ourselves immersed in much earlier events: the brief Turkestan
autonomous republic, the tsarist imperial era, the age of the Kokand Khanate . . . or
clear back to dim antiquity, recalling how Stalin countered Hitler’s boastful claims
about Neanderthal Man with his own Ferghana Man. The appearance of those fossil
fragments in Ferghana earned their discoverer, a Jew, the Stalin Prize!
Second, the Project has sought to determine whether the Ferghana Valley is
in some sense a center—or is it merely a peripheral zone to other centers? This
question, too, can be approached in many ways. One might cite the many great
trading centers and capitals that once existed there: Kasansai near the Qaratogh
Mountains in the east; Ershi near Batken; Babur’s birthplace at Aksikent; Andijan
in the post-Mongol period; the emirate controlled from Kokand; Novyi Margilan
(now Ferghana City) in the tsarist era; and Khujand through the centuries. Surely,
one might argue, these suggest that Ferghana’s being a central place in politics and
economics was long the rule, not the exception. And yet a more present-minded
observer might stress the opposite, that the inevitable consequence of the establish-
ment of Soviet national republics was to subordinate all three parts of the Ferghana
Valley to distant power centers and to marginalize it.
INTRODUCTION xvii
Third, is there in some sense a “Ferghana” history and culture, and if so what
is the role of localism within the Ferghana Valley? The case for localism is strong.
Most men wear black caps called do’ppi, whose design signifies their town of
origin. Most Valley residents live within an hour of where they were born, each
region prepares the traditional rice and lamb dish in a distinctive manner, and local
accents are strong. Going back in time, one encounters the high-wheeled Kokand
wagons, distinctive local pottery types, and even special designs stamped in the
center of loaves of bread.
Against this is a welter of Ferghana-wide customs. Ferghanans lustily sing a
capella at weddings and teahouses (chaikhanas), and the Tajiks and Uzbeks share a
common instrumental tradition in their variant of the classical shashmakom. Unlike
their neighbors, they endlessly concoct askiya, short poems rich with word play and
double meanings on such immortal themes as politics, food, gossip, sex, and the
good life. Which of these trends—regional or local—is waxing and which waning?
And what meaning does this evolution have for the valley as a whole?
Fourth, what is the interplay between isolation and contact in the life of Fer-
ghana, past and present? One scarcely has to look to find examples of Ferghana’s
rich involvement with the outer world. As early as the eighth century the region’s
greatest thinker lived within a few meters of the Silk Road as it passed through the
center of Margilan. For centuries, artisans in Aksikent fashioned razor-sharp sabers
for the immense Chinese market, while other locals surpassed most of China in
their silk exports to the West. The cars rolling off the Korean-American assembly
line in Andijan are today’s equivalent. And, when the pious elders of Kokand built
their new Friday mosque in the eighteenth century, to do so they hauled ninety
huge wooden columns all the way from India.
In this connection it is also worth noting that the population of the Ferghana Val-
ley has always been in flux. Waves of migrants have swept in from every direction,
including not only Turkic and Iranian peoples but also Russians and other Slavs,
Armenians, Germans, and Crimean Tatars. More recently, male laborers from the
valley have left to find work elsewhere, whether in Kazakhstan, Russia, Ukraine,
or the Persian Gulf states.
But such examples must be balanced against inescapable signs of inward-looking
withdrawal. How else could the local population withstand onslaughts from abroad,
whether from Alexander the Great, who supped on chicken and bread (murgh va
nan
) in Margilan and found a wife in Khujand, or Russian and then Soviet con-
querors, or the goods that flood in from China today?
Fifth, what has been role of religion and of secularism in the Ferghana Valley— and
what is that role today? On this crucial subject no less than four alternative narratives
compete with one another. One holds that the Ferghana region always has been a land
of religious diversity and hence, of necessity, one of tolerance. Until the twelfth cen-
tury one could find Zoroastrian temples, Buddhist stupas, Syrian Christian churches,
Jewish synagogues, and Muslim mosques in close proximity to one another in most
Ferghana cities. In the early twenty-first century, governments still defend this plural-
xviii INTRODUCTION
ism as the norm. That concept competes with the notion of Ferghana as part of the
Muslim heartland, the land where the worldly Hanafi school of Sunni jurisprudence
was codified, then spread to Afghanistan, Pakistan, and on to India.
3
Yet another notion stresses the role of secular education in the valley, and in
particular the so-called Jadid tradition of the early twentieth century. While the
Jadids were themselves pious Muslims, many of the reforms they advocated fed
into the Soviet policy of secularism until 1992. And finally one must speak of
Muslim fundamentalism, which appeared under tsarist rule and rose to prominence
in recent years, with its venomous hostility not only to secularism but to more
orthodox traditions of Sunni Islam. An important challenge facing our scholars
was to determine how these various strains interact and what the sources of their
respective strengths are today.
Sixth, one must ask whether change in the Ferghana Valley characteristically
has been driven from within or without, and what prevails in this regard today?
Closely related to several of the questions posed above, this demands that we
consider different levels of culture. Clearly many changes, from the introduction
of sericulture to cell phones to the Olympic tennis center in Andijan, have come
from without. Indeed, all the religions that flourished there, with the exception of
ancient local deities and Zoroastrianism, came from without as well, as did the
transformations wrought by Russian and Soviet rule. But the Ferghana Valley is
not a cultural blank slate on which any outsider can write at will. We are obliged to
weigh the importance of local responses in many spheres. Specifically, this requires
that we consider not only the manner in which foreign ways have been adopted in
the valley but also the process by which they have been reworked and adapted by
the forces of local culture to meet local circumstances.
Seventh, have tensions in recent decades arisen from stagnation or from too
rapid change? The very process of framing this question poses an intellectual chal-
lenge. Surely, one may object, it is possible for each of these seeming opposites
to arise out of the other. Is this not precisely what occurred through the process
of collectivization after 1929, when age-old patterns of local life were ruthlessly
uprooted, but as a result of which whole extended families or local communities
moved smoothly into the collective farms, thus transforming them from agents of
revolution into breeding-grounds of social stagnation? This possibility creates one
of the most elusive questions before us, yet also one of the most important.
Eighth, has the Ferghana Valley characteristically been “over-governed” or
“under-governed”— and what is the balance today? This issue, too, calls for fresh
thinking from the outset. In all three of the countries that meet in the Ferghana
Valley it is customary to speak of authoritarian rule. But the habit of governments
imposing decisions from the top down does not necessarily mean that the affected
region is over-governed. On the contrary, pretenses of authoritarian rule may coexist
with a situation in which decisions are implemented poorly at the community level,
or not at all. This in turn raises important questions about the actual interplay over
the years between centralized administration and local civic initiatives.
INTRODUCTION xix
Moreover, both pre- and post-colonial elites in the three distant capitals may be
preoccupied with issues far removed from the realities of daily life in the Ferghana
Valley. This can lead to a steady breakdown of services, even as the claims of a
nominally strong government increase. Such a hypothesis may at first seem highly
speculative. But the rise of such figures as the late Ahmadjon Adilov (Odilov in
Uzbek), who in late Soviet times ran a virtual state within the state in large parts
of the Ferghana Valley, forces us to consider that possibility seriously.
Finally, what is the balance between centripetal and centrifugal forces across
the expanse of the Ferghana Valley, that is, between the forces of coordination and
un-coordination, integration and disintegration? This is an absolutely central issue,
not merely for the Ferghana Valley but for all three of the states that rule there. To
a significant degree, developments in the Ferghana Valley not only affect but do
much to define the polities of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan, and frame the
terms in which leaders in Tashkent, Dushanbe, and Bishkek address their countries’
various challenges. For this reason, the task of correctly describing the interplay
between integration and disintegration both within the Ferghana Valley and in the
three new sovereign states assumes particular importance in our enquiry.
These, then, are nine of the key questions to which the authors of this volume
sought answers. Taken together, the questions all pertain to issues of identity.
What does it mean to be a citizen of Batken, Khujand, or Ferghana City? Is this
compatible with being a citizen of the Ferghana Valley as a whole? And how does
that identity, if it even exists, relate to the emerging national identities of the three
post-colonial states that are still gradually emerging from the demise of the Soviet
Union? Our distinguished scholars mulled these questions both individually and
collectively, through numerous conversations, e-mail exchanges, sub-group meet-
ings, and at our overall editorial meeting held in Almaty in August 2008. As they
considered them, the authors also bore in mind comparable situations elsewhere
in the world, both present and past.
Whenever twenty-seven experts come together, one can expect at least twenty-
seven perspectives to emerge, if not many more. When they are drawn from three
such different countries as comprise the Ferghana Valley, these divergent points
of view will be all the more evident. Throughout the volume that follows, such
differences have been respectfully acknowledged, and indeed have been treated as
alternative sources of insight. In the end, the scholarly values of open-mindedness,
genuine curiosity, rigor, and fairness led to more common ground than anyone
might have expected at the outset. In the course of the Ferghana Project far more
bridges were constructed than demolished.
If the reader finds himself or herself drawn into these debates, and if that reader
is moved beyond clichés and stereotypes to embrace some of the universal questions
posed by the life-story of this beautiful, complex, vexed, but in the end promising
region, the twenty-seven authors will rest contented with their work. All of us have
come to realize that to understand the Ferghana Valley is to begin to understand
Central Asia itself.
xx INTRODUCTION
Notes
1. Council on Foreign Relations and Century Foundation, Calming the Ferghana Val-
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